A    GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 


A  GUIDE  TO 
SOUTH    AMERICA 


BY 

W.    A.    HIRST 

AUTHOR  OF  "  ARGENTINA  " 


WITH  TEN   MAPS 


NEW  YORK 

THE    MAGMILLAN    COMPANY 
1915 


PRESERVATION 

COPY  ADDED 
ORIGINAL  TO  BE 

RETAINED 


2  1 


PREFACE 

WITH  the  exception  of  a  small  handbook  pub- 
lished in  the  United  States,  and  a  brief  Guide 
issued  by  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,  this 
work  is  the  only  book  of  the  kind  with  which  I  am 
acquainted.  As  far  as  possible,  it  is  written  from 
personal  knowledge,  and  I  am  much  indebted  to 
information  kindly  furnished  by  various  Consular 
officials.  Many  of  the  books  which  I  have  consulted 
are  mentioned  in  the  text.  It  is  hoped  that  this 
Guide  may  be  useful  at  the  present  time,  when  the 
question  of  food  supplies  is  prominent  and  when 
the  successors  of  Cochrane  have  cleared  the  South 
American  coast  from  the  marauder. 

The  book  was  ready  for  the  press  at  the  end  of  last 
July,  but  its  publication  was  delayed  owing  to  the  war 
and  again  owing  to  my  military  duties. 

W.  A.   HIRST 

YORKSHIRE  HUSSARS 
H ARROGATE 

February  23,  1915 


3O8686 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTORY     .... 

PAGE 

I 

ARGENTINA              .... 

.27 

BOLIVIA      ..... 

.    79 

BRAZIL        ..... 

.    99 

CHILE         ..... 

-  •            •            •  153 

COLOMBIA                 .... 

.  185 

ECUADOR  .               *               .               .               . 

.            .            .  203 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

.                 .                 .221 

PARAGUAY               .... 

.    239 

PERU           ..... 

.    257 

URUGUAY  ..... 

•    293 

VENEZUELA             .... 

•    313 

INDEX         ..... 

•  333 

LIST    OF    MAPS 


ARGENTINE 

BOLIVIA      . 

BRAZIL 

CHILE 

COLOMBIA. 

ECUADOR  . 

PARAGUAY 

PERU 

URUGUAY . 

VENEZUELA 


PAGF- 
26 

78 


152 
I84 

202 
238 
256 
292 
312 


vii 


A  GUIDE  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA 


INTRODUCTORY 

i.    BRIEF  SKETCH  OF  A  TOUR 

THE  traveller  can  leave  Liverpool  by  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Company  or  sail  from  South- 
ampton by  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company, 
and  in  either  case  Pernambuco  and  Bahia  will  probably 
be  the  first  South  American  ports  at  which  the  vessel 
touches.  These  lines  are  now  under  one  management. 
Sometimes  one  or  both  of  these  ports  is  omitted. 
Probably,  in  any  case,  a  casual  glance  at  either  place 
will  satisfy  most  people,  but  some  may  wish  to  examine 
the  fine  railway  system  of  Pernambuco,  or  to  explore 
the  interesting  interior  from  Bahia,  including  the  dia- 
mond mines.  Such  excursions  will  add  materially  to 
the  length  and  cost  of  the  tour.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
capital  of  Brazil,  is  the  first  important  objective,  and  a 
fortnight  should  be  enough  for  that  town  and  Sao 
Paulo.  The  steamer  could  be  rejoined  at  Santos,  where 
a  long  stay  is  not  recommended.  Most  travellers  will 
desire  to  see  one  or  two  countries  in  particular  and 
spend  as  much  time  as  possible  in  them  at  the  expense  of 
the  others,  but  for  the  impartial  traveller  the  half-month 
between  the  two  steamers  of  his  line  will  give  sufficient 


.2  ,      ;:A  -GUIDE   TO  SOUTH    AMERICA 


time  for  Brazil.  From  Rio  or  Santos  it  is  a  short 
journey  to  Montevideo,  and  the  ocean  ship  can  then  be 
abandoned  until  Valparaiso  is  reached.  Beyond  the 
fine  ranches  of  Lemco  (which  can  also  be  conveniently 
visited  from  Buenos  Aires),  Uruguay  does  not  demand 
much  attention.  From  Montevideo  the  Argentine 
capital  is  reached  either  by  boat  or  rail,  and  perhaps 
there  will  be  a  temptation  to  devote  the  whole  of  the 
remainder  of  the  180  days  to  the  premier  Republic  of 
South  America,  which,  for  the  regular  business  man,  as 
distinguished  from  the  pioneer,  offers  by  far  the  greatest 
attractions.  Not  that  there  is  not  in  Argentina  abundant 
work  for  the  pioneer,  for  both  Patagonia  and  the  Gran 
Chaco  are  almost  virgin  fields,  but  the  machinery  for 
development  is  there,  while  hardly  a  beginning  has 
been  made  in  most  of  the  equatorial  regions.  Most 
people  will  decide  to  omit  Paraguay  altogether  from 
their  itinerary.  The  journey  thither  used  to  be  immensely 
long  and  tedious,  but  railway  communication  is  now 
complete  to  Asuncion.  The  country  is  very  backward 
and  seldom  visited  by  Englishmen,  but  historically  and 
physically  it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  places  in 
South  America.  Some  sixty  years  ago  an  English 
traveller x  wrote  :  "  That  it  has  been  shut  up  for  some 
mighty  purpose  is  quite  obvious.  It  has  been  the  focus 
to  which  the  docile  race  of  the  Guarani  Indians  and 
the  organizing  talent  of  the  Jesuits  were  concentrated  ; 
it  was  besides  a  part  of  Southern  America  where  the 
civilization  of  the  Spaniards  was  first  planted,  the  spot 
where  the  seed  of  the  first  crop,  now  effete,  was  sown. 
...  I  am  convinced  that  these  people  are  to  be  a  part 
of  the  hands  by  which  English  heads  are  to  do  wonders 
for  civilizing  the  rich  deserts  of  South  America."  A 
murderous  foreign  war  and  revolutions  have  postponed 
their  destiny,  and,  such  as  it  is,  Germans  have  more 
1  C.  B.  Mansfield.  Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  the  Plate,  pp.  352-3. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

hand  in  its  control  than  Englishmen.  More  probably 
preference  will  be  given  to  the  Iguazu  Falls,  one  of  the 
finest  natural  sights  in  South  America,  and  the  excur- 
sion can  now  be  made  in  a  reasonable  time.1  But 
Argentina  unquestionably  demands  more  time  than 
any  other  country  in  South  America.  If  the  Republic 
could  acquire  population,  she  would  take  a  very  high 
rank  among  nations.  Buenos  Aires,  of  course,  will  be 
the  headquarters  for  a  considerable  time,  and  hence 
Bahia  Blanca,  the  Liverpool  of  South  America,  and 
Mar  del  Plata,  its  Brighton,  should  be  visited,  while 
northwards  there  are  many  claims  on  the  attention. 
As  before  said,  Paraguay  and  the  Iguazu  Falls  can 
both  be  best  reached  from  the  capital,  but  it  will  be 
difficult  to  spare  the  time.  However,  a  trip  to  Rosario 
can  be  done  comfortably  within  three  days,  and  it 
would  be  advisable  to  prolong  the  journey  at  least  to 
Cordoba.  Tucuman  is  also  easily  accessible  by  rail, 
and  there  are  many  interesting  places  farther  north, 
including  the  Famatina  mines.  Further,  if  an  intro- 
duction can  be  obtained,  it  would  be  desirable  to  visit 
an  estancia  or  ranch,  which  gives  the  visitor  an  oppor- 
tunity of  enjoying  the  life  of  the  carnpo,  where  con- 
ditions approach  more  nearly  to  the  Argentina  of 
fiction — the  land  of  cattle-riders  and  endless  grassy 
plains.  One  month  is  very  inadequate  for  Argentina, 
but,  of  course,  a  round  tour  consists  chiefly  in  omitting 
indispensable  places.  Further,  it  is  impossible  to  take 
the  voyage  round  Cape  Horn  without  missing  the  rail- 
way journey  across  the  Andes.  Some  people  perhaps 
will  prefer  to  take  only  the  round  trip,  i.e.  to  go  to 
Valparaiso  by  rail  from  Buenos  Aires  and  then  return 
the  whole  way  by  sea.  The  voyage  along  the  Chilian 
coast,  a  call  at  Punta  Arenas,  a  possible  call  at  the 
Falkland  Islands,  are  all  things  one  would  not  willingly 
1  See  W.  S.  Barclay.  To  the  Falls  of  Iguazu. 


4  A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

miss.  However,  according  to  our  projected  route,  they 
must  be  put  off  to  a  more  convenient  season,  and  the 
train  must  be  taken  to  Mendoza,  where  as  long  a  halt 
as  possible  should  be  made.  Puente  del  Inca  will 
probably  claim  a  couple  of  days,  and  then  the  traveller 
will  run  straight  to  Valparaiso,  which  has  no  special 
point  of  interest,  and  the  temporary  headquarters  will 
probably  be  at  Santiago.  For  the  voyage  north  the  Eng- 
lish boats,  not  the  Chilian,  should  be  chosen.  After  many 
halts  at  the  little  Chilian  ports  Iquique  is  reached,  and 
is  worth  quite  ten  days,  some  five  of  which  may  be  con- 
sumed by  the  Nitrate  Pampa.  Then  the  boat  is  taken 
again  to  the  little  port  of  Arica,  not  far  to  the  north  of 
Iquique,  and  the  traveller  proceeds  by  the  new  railway 
to  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  La  Paz  will  claim 
some  time,  and  then  the  journey  over  the  mountains 
can  be  resumed  to  Arequipa,  in  Peru,  and  on  to  the 
little  port  of  Mollendo.  Thence  it  is  a  short  sea  voyage 
to  Lima,  via  Callao,  and  the  Peruvian  capital  will 
probably  be  chosen  as  headquarters  for  some  little 
time.  Lima  is  an  agreeable  place  and  Cerro  de 
Pasco,  the  highest  town  in  the  world,  should  be  visited, 
while  many  pleasant  excursions  can  be  made  to  places 
on  the  coast  or  in  the  interior. 

The  voyage  will  be  resumed  from  Callao.  A  few 
people  may  wish  to  disembark  at  Paita  and  see  Piura, 
but  the  great  majority  will  go  direct  to  Panama.  The 
one  objection  to  visiting  the  interesting  Republic  of 
Ecuador  is  the  yellow  fever  scourge,  which  rages  at 
Guayaquil,  and  a  further  inconvenience  will  be  the 
quarantine  at  Panama.  In  fact,  many  vessels  do  not 
call  at  Ecuadorian  ports.  But  even  if  the  traveller 
does  not  wish  to  land,  it  is  worth  while  to  take  the 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  magnificent  panorama  of 
river  and  forest  scenery,  and  the  chance  of  a  glimpse 
of  Chimborazo. 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

Panama  and  the  Canal  will  take  a  few  days.  After 
this,  the  voyager  may  decide  to  bid  good-bye  to  South 
America  and  sail  homewards  from  Colon  by  the 
West  Indies  or  New  York,  but  he  will  perhaps  wish 
to  see  something  of  Colombia  and  Venezuela.  This 
will  not  be  altogether  convenient,  for  the  English  lines 
do  not  touch  at  La  Guiara  and  the  other  ports  on 
their  homeward  voyage  ;  it  will  therefore  be  necessary 
to  go  by  a  foreign  boat.  North  Brazil  has  also  been 
neglected.  In  fact,  to  see  South  America  thoroughly, 
three  separate  voyages  are  required.  The  first,  from 
Pernambuco  to  Panama,  has  been  already  described. 
The  second  should  begin  at  Liverpool  or  Southampton, 
proceed  to  Venezuela  and  Colombia,  and  the  oppor- 
tunity could  easily  be  taken  at  the  same  time  of  seeing 
something  of  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  third  should  be  taken  in  the  Booth  Line,  from 
Liverpool  to  Manaos  and  back.  It  will  be  noted  that 
these  have  no  connexion  ;  each  begins  from  England, 
but  ocean  liners  are  usually  more  comfortable  than 
coasting  vessels,  and,  as  the  second  and  third  journeys 
are  almost  wholly  in  the  tropics,  considerations  of 
health  might  make  the  traveller  hesitate  to  add  them 
on  to  a  six  months'  strenuous  tour.  The  best  time 
to  start  on  the  first  tour  is  in  December.  The  climate 
of  Rio  is  no  worse  in  January  than  at  any  other  time  ; 
February  is  about  the  best  season  for  Argentina,  and 
a  few  months  later  the  Andes  line  might  be  blocked 
with  snow.  Up  to  Panama  the  climate  will  be  found 
delightful,  and  in  May  the  rains  relieve  the  heat  of 
the  Isthmus. 

2.  COST  OF  A  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TOUR 

During  the  first  three-quarters  of  the  nineteenth 
century  travellers  in  South  America  invariably 
lamented  the  unproductive  character  of  a  region 


6  A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

which  possessed  every  kind  of  natural  wealth  and 
nevertheless,  owing  to  its  turbulent  politics  and  lack 
of  internal  communications,  afforded  a  comparatively 
unremunerative  field  for  capital  and  enterprise.  In 
those  days  travelling  was  often  unsafe  and  always 
costly.  Now,  except  in  remote  and  imperfectly  ex- 
plored tracts,  there  is  perfect  security  for  life  and 
property,  and  the  expense,  though  greater  than  in 
most  parts  of  the  world,  is  not  prohibitive.  As 
several  of  the  South  American  Republics  have  become 
immensely  important  factors  in  the  world's  trade  and 
industry,  there  is  a  constant  stream  of  business  men 
from  Europe  and  North  America  to  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Buenos  Aires.  Those  who  are  making  the  voyage 
for  the  first  time  will  desire  to  know  its  probable 
cost,  and  an  attempt  is  made  in  this  section  to  answer 
this  question. 

The  traveller  can  book  for  a  tour  round  South 
America  by  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company 
or  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company.  There 
are  two  choices  of  route.  The  best  is  to  go  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  then  on  to  Buenos  Aires,  and  cross  the 
continent  by  rail  to  Valparaiso.  Then  a  first-class 
liner  is  taken  to  Panama.  The  Isthmus  is  crossed 
by  rail  and  a  steamer  takes  the  traveller  to  South- 
ampton via  the  West  Indies.  The  cost  is  £100. 

The  alternative  route,  though  interesting,  is  con- 
siderably longer.  At  Buenos  Aires,  instead  of  the  land 
route,  the  sea  voyage  is  prolonged  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  to  Valparaiso.  The  cost  is  also  ^100. 

American  travellers  can  begin  and  end  at  New 
York  for  practically  the  same  fare.  The  above  charge 
includes  no  expenses  upon  shore,  except  the  bare 
railway  expenses  and  sleeping-berth. 

Four  cwt.  of  baggage  are  allowed  to  each  adult 
first-class  passenger,  but  by  the  Transandine  Rail- 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

way  only  50  kilos  are  allowed,  and  on  the  Panama 
railway  150  Ib. 

If  a  through  booking  be  not  desired,  the  traveller 
can  book  from  port  to  port,  but  this  is  more  expen- 
sive. The  charges  of  foreign  steamships  are  practically 
the  same  as  those  of  the  two  great  English  lines. 

The  Lamport  and  Holt  Line,  from  Liverpool, 
affords  a  cheaper  service.  A  single  first-class  ticket 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  ^18;  by  the  Royal  Mail  or  Pacific 
the  cost  is  ^33.  To  Buenos  Aires  the  respective  single 
fares  are  £20  and  ^39.  A  return  passage  by  the 
Lamport  and  Holt  to  Buenos  Aires  is  £35.  In  the 
case  of  each  port  the  fare  from  England  to  London 
will  usually  be  given  in  this  handbook.  Doubtless  by 
a  tramp  or  a  sailing  vessel  the  rates  of  passage  would 
be  very  low. 

The  tips  expected  are  not  larger  than  elsewhere, 
and  tobacco,  wine  and  such-like  things  are  supplied 
at  reasonable  rates. 

The  coasting  rates,  whether  foreign  or  local,  are 
high,  and  exorbitant  rates  are  usually  demanded  by 
boatmen  and  conveyers  of  luggage,  but  these  can 
usually  be  reduced  by  judicious  treatment.  But  in 
all  cases  the  cost  is  heavy,  and  the  traveller  will  make 
his  journey  much  more  comfortably  if  he  limits  his 
luggage  to  a  few  suit-cases  and  steel  trunks.  Cabs  are 
generally  bad  and  always  dear. 

In  some  countries  travelling  by  rail  is  by  no  means 
cheap.  The  short  journey,  for  example,  from  Rio  to 
Sao  Paulo  costs  about  £2  ios.,  and  the  charges  in  the 
Argentine  are  high.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  very 
low  in  Chile,  and  moderate  in  Peru. 

It  will  probably  be  the  hotel  charges  that  a 
European  will  be  most  disposed  to  resent,  and  this, 
rather  on  account  of  the  indifferent  value  given  than 
on  account  of  the  actual  expense,  although  this  is 


8  A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

considerable.  The  question,  however,  is  dealt  with 
elsewhere,  and  here  is  only  noted  from  the  point  of 
view  of  expense. 

The  round  trip  may  be  calculated  to  take  180  days, 
and  we  will  assume  that  the  traveller  crosses  the 
Argentine  Republic  instead  of  going  by  Cape  Horn. 
This  includes  a  short  excursion  into  Bolivia,  but  it 
omits  Venezuela  and  Northern  Brazil  altogether,  and 
there  would  be  a  difficulty  in  seeing  much  of  Colombia. 
Some  60  extra  days  would  be  required  to  rectify 
these  omissions,  and  more  than  proportional  expense, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  wiser  to  make 
a  separate  trip,  for  any  one  who  reaches  Colon  after 
several  months  of  South  American  accommodation  will 
probably  prefer  to  sail  homewards  and  leave  the 
Amazon  unvisited. 

Of  the  180  days  about  70  will  be  spent  on  the  sea  ; 
the  slower  coasting  service  in  the  Pacific  is  recom- 
mended as  more  interesting.  The  expenses  on  board 
are  tips,  boats  (and  expenses  in  port),  and  the  bar-bill. 
Most  people  find  this  last  a  serious  item,  for  few  think 
of  providing  themselves  with  books  or  work  of  any 
kind,  and  have  nothing  but  cocktails  wherewith  to 
kill  the  time.  But  2s.  a  day  is  ample  allowance 
— this  includes  table  wines — and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
there  is  very  little  need  of  alcohol  on  the  sea.  For 
tips,  a  shilling  a  day  is  enough,  i.e.  about  £i  for 
a  voyage  of  three  weeks,  and  if  the  service  is  really 
good,  something  extra  might  be  given.  On  English 
boats  the  attention  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  Port 
expenses  are  a  considerable  item.  On  the  Pacific  coast 
the  vessels  sometimes  make  two  halts  a  day,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  see  every  possible  place.  The  return  fare 
of  the  boatman  averages  quite  2s.,  and  purchases 
will  probably  be  made.  Then  at  such  ports  as 
Pernambuco  or  Bahia,  even  if  the  traveller  does  not 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

desire  to  make  a  halt,  he  will  wish  to  lunch  or  dine 
on  shore,  and  if  the  ship  delays  a  day  or  two,  he  may 
prefer  to  live  at  an  hotel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ship, 
in  making  the  ocean  voyage,  often  goes  on  for  a  week 
without  touching  anywhere.  Five  shillings  a  day  will 
probably  be  adequate. 

The  steamship  fare  includes  the  railway  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  Valparaiso  and  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  remaining  cost  will  depend  upon  individual  tastes. 
One  visitor  to  Peru  may  wish  to  spend  all  his  time  at 
Lima,  while  another  may  wish  to  visit  Arequipa  and 
other  places.  The  same  remark  applies  to  travel  away 
from  railways.  At  least  ^25  should  be  allowed  for 
railways,  and,  say,  .£15  for  mule  or  horse  travel,  but 
the  latter  item  can  be  omitted  altogether  if  desired. 
When  on  land,  £i  a  day  should  be  allowed  for 
hotels,  and  los.  for  miscellaneous  expenses.  When 
the  cost  of  carting  luggage,  and  casual  meals, 
entertainments,  and  the  like  are  considered,  this  pro- 
vision will  not  be  considered  excessive.  Of  course, 
these  expenses  may  be  materially  reduced,  for  hospit- 
able friends  are  likely  to  give  invitations,  and  also  to 
show  the  traveller  ways  of  avoiding  expense.  But  it  is 
prudent  to  allow  as  much  as  has  been  indicated  above. 

The  expense,  then,  of  a  round  trip  may  be  stated  as 
follows  : — 

SEA  VOYAGE,  70  DAYS 

£     s. 

The  fare  100     o 

Tips  at  is.  a  day         3  10 

Bar  account  at  2s.  a  day       ...         ...         ...         70 

Port  expenses  at  55.  a  day 17  10 

ON  LAND,  no  DAYS 

Hotels  at  £i  a  day no  o 

Miscellaneous  expenses  at  los.  a  day         ...  55  o 

Railways           ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  25  o 

Horse  or  mule  journeys        15  o 

Total         333    o 


10 


A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 


It  may  be  added  that  Messrs.  Thomas  Cook  &  Son 
lately  advertised  a  personally  conducted  South  Ameri- 
can tour.  The  cost  was  275  guineas,  and  the  route 
practically  identical — but  the  reverse  way — with  the 
above.  It  lasted,  however,  only  3}  months. 

The  following  is  a  rough  time  sketch  of  the  tour  : 


Jan. 


Dec.    i.     Leave  Southampton 

„      Cherbourg 
„      3.         „      Vigo 
„      4.        „       Lisbon 
„      6.        „       Madeira 
„    14.        „       Pernambuco 
„    15.        „       Bahia 
„    18.     Arrive  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Spend  a  fortnight  in 

Brazil 

2.     Leave  Santos 
6.     Arrive  Montevideo 

One  week  in  Uruguay 
13.     Arrive  Buenos  Aires 
Spend  a  month  with 
Buenos    Aires      as 
headquarters,  visit- 
ing    Asuncion     or 
such       places      in 
Argentina   as  may 
be  desired 

12.     Leave  Buenos  Aires 
20.     After    halt  at   Men- 
doza       and     other 
places     arrive     by 
rail  at  Valparaiso 
Spend     at     Santiago 
and  other  places  in 
Chile  14  days 


Feb. 

» 


Mar.   4.     Leave  Valparaiso  by 

slow  boat 
„       5.     Coquimbo 
„      6.     Huasco 
„       7.     Chanaral 
„      8.     Antofagasta 
,,      9.     Iquique,  arrive 
„     17.     Iquique,  depart 
„     18.     Arica 

Ten  days  in  Bolivia 
,,     28.     Leave  Mollendo 
„     30.     Arrive  Callao 

Spend  three  weeks  in 
Lima     and     other 
parts  of  Peru 
Apr.  19.     Leave  Callao 
„     20.     Arrive  Salaverry 
„     21.         „      Pacarmayo 

and  Eten 

„     22.     Arrive  Paita 
„     23.     Guayaquil,  arrive 
,,     24.     Guayaquil,  depart 
„     28.     Panama,  arrive 

Spend  a  week  on  the 
Isthmus,  and  re- 
turn home  by 
Jamaica,  arriving 
at  Southampton  be- 
fore the  end  of 
May 


December  ist  was  chosen  as  being  the  first  of  the 
month  and  allowing  the  ship's  movements  to  be  taken 
in  at  a  glance,  but  December  2oth  would  be  a  better 


INTRODUCTORY  11 

date  for  starting  ;  Christmas  would  be  best  spent  on 
the  sea.  Sometimes  it  is  convenient  to  land  at  Monte- 
video and  sometimes  at  Buenos  Aires  ;  each  capital  is 
easily  accessible  from  the  other.  The  Pacific  Steam 
Navigation  Company  has  a  D  service  with  cheaper 
fares. 

The  second  tour  to  Brazil  may  be  briefly  indicated. 
The  Booth  Line  steamers  leave  Liverpool  twice  a 
month  for  Cherbourg,  Vigo,  Leixoes  (Oporto),  Lisbon, 
Para,  and  Manaos.  Three  months  would  be  enough 
to  allow  for  the  tour,  and  the  best  time  to  start  would 
be  in  January.  The  minimum  cost  of  the  passage 
would  be  £68. 

The  third  tour  would  probably  take  a  little  longer. 
The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company's  boats  sail 
every  fortnight  from  Southampton  for  a  round  voyage, 
for  which  the  cost  (from  Southampton  to  Southamp- 
ton) is  -£45  (minimum  fare).  It  would  be  necessary 
to  disembark  at  Cartagena  (Colombia),  and  when  that 
Republic  had  been  seen,  a  coasting  vessel  would  take 
the  traveller  to  the  ports  of  Venezuela.  The  original 
line  could  be  resumed  at  Cartagena,  and,  if  desired,  a 
landing  might  be  made  at  Colon.  Thence  any  part  of 
Central  America  or  any  West  Indian  island  might  be 
visited.  The  return  voyage  would  be  from  Colon  to 
Southampton  by  way  of  Jamaica.  The  Leyland  Line 
from  Liverpool  is  rather  cheaper.  It  might  be  found 
most  convenient  to  take  a  single  ticket  (£30)  by  the 
Royal  Mail  to  Cartagena  or  Colon,  and  after  seeing  the 
desired  places  to  ship  from  Port  Limon  or  Colon  to 
Liverpool  or  Bristol  ;  the  minimum  fare  is  £25. .- 

3.  STEAMSHIP  LINES 

From  Liverpool — The  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company's  steamers  leave  'Liverpool  once  a  fortnight 
for  Buenos  Aires  (tranship  at  Montevideo).  They 


12         A   GUIDE  TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

touch  at  La  Rochelle-Pallice,  Coruna,  Vigo,  Leixoes 
(Oporto),  Las  Paltnas,  St.  Vincent,  Pernambuco 
(sometimes),  Bahia  (sometimes),  Rio  and  Santos. 

The  Lamport  and  Holt  leave  Liverpool  twice  a 
month  for  Bahia,  Rio,  and  Santos.  Steamers  of  the 
same  line  leave  Liverpool  about  as  frequently  for 
Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires.  Several  other  lines 
leave  for  the  Plate  District.  The  Houlder  Line  leaves 
once  a  month,  the  others  are  less  regular. 

The  Booth  Line's  steamers  leave  Liverpool  once  a 
fortnight  for  Manaos.  They  touch  at  Havre,  Vigo, 
Leixoes,  Lisbon,  Para,  Ceara  and  Maranham. 

The  Leyland  Line's  steamers  leave  Liverpool  about 
twice  a  month  for  Colon  and  the  ports  of  Venezuela 
and  Colombia. 

The  Elders  and  Fyffes  Line's  steamers  leave  Liver- 
pool occasionally  for  Santa  Marta  (Colombia)  or  for 
Port  Limon  and  Colon. 

From  Southampton — The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company's  steamers  sail  every  fortnight  from  South- 
ampton, calling  at  Cherbourg,  Vigo,  Lisbon,  Madeira, 
Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio,  Santos,  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires. 

The  same  line  sends  steamers  twice  a  month  to 
Colon  and  the  ports  of  Colombia.  Passengers  can 
return  by  the  West  Indies  or  New  York. 

From  London — The  Nelson  Line  steamers  sail 
weekly  to  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires,  touching  at 
Boulogne,  Coruna,  and  Vigo. 

Foreign  lines  are  numerous,  and  the  following  are 
some  of  the  chief  sailings  : — 

From  Dover  (Amsterdam  the  previous  day),  the 
Royal  Holland  Lloyd  sails  every  month  for  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Santos,  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires,  touch- 
ing at  Boulogne,  Coruna,  Vigo  and  Lisbon. 

From    Southampton     (starting     at     Hamburg     and 


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I4         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

touching  at  Boulogne),  the  Hamburg  American  and 
Hamburg  South  American  jointly  dispatch  steamers 
weekly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires,  touching  at  Coruna,  Vigo  and  Lisbon. 
Excellent  fast  French  and  Italian  boats  make  the 
South  American  voyage,  but  they  do  not  touch  at 
British  ports. 

The  list  on  p.  13  of  the  various  lines  and  their  fares 
to  the  principal  ports  may  be  of  interest. 

4.  HOTELS 

All  towns  in  South  America  that  are  of  any  impor- 
tance possess  hotel  accommodation,  but  its  quality 
generally  leaves  a  good  deal  to  be  desired.  Comfort 
is  not  well  understood,  and  the  population  is  com- 
posed of  easygoing  people  who  prefer  leisure  to  luxury, 
or  else  of  persons  bent  on  acquiring  wealth  rapidly, 
and  therefore  not  disposed  to  take  trouble  over  small 
things.  In  general  it  may  be  said  of  hotel-keepers 
that  French  are  better  than  Italians,  Italians  than 
Spanish,  and  Spanish  than  natives.  English  and 
North  Americans  are  rare  in  the  trade,  but,  when 
found,  should  be  made  a  note  of.  Mr.  Percy  Martin, 
in  his  racy  book,  Through  Five  Republics,  says  :  "  Val- 
paraiso, like  almost  every  other  city  in  Chile,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Santiago,  is  sadly  deficient  in 
hotel  accommodation.  Hotels  there  are,  or  such  as 
call  themselves  by  this  name ;  but  nous  autres  would 
scarcely  designate  them  as  worthy  of  the  term,  nor 
give  them  equal  rank  with  our  suburban  pothouses." 
Again  :  "Attractive  as  Argentina  is,  from  an  architec- 
tural point  of  view,  it  possesses  scarcely  one  really 
pleasant  or  thoroughly  comfortable  hotel.  In  a  city 
claiming  something  over  850,000  inhabitants,1  possess- 

1  The  remarkable  growth  of  Buenos  Aires  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  it  now  claims  half  as  many  inhabitants  again,  and 


INTRODUCTORY  15 

ing  much  individual  and  collective  wealth,  and  a 
situation  almost  unrivalled  for  sanitary  perfection,  it 
is  certainly  remarkable  that  visitors  and  residents  alike 
should  find  so  little  facility  in  securing  accommo- 
dation." 

Considerable  improvement  has  been  effected  since 
1905.  At  Panama,  which  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  in 
South  America,  there  is  a  very  excellent  hotel,  and 
Lima  has  good  hotels  and  restaurants.  In  great  towns, 
like  Rio  and  Buenos  Aires,  fair  accommodation  can 
be  procured  at  a  high  price,  and  at  Santiago  and 
Valparaiso  there  are  clean  hotels  with  eatable  food. 
But  in  many  places  the  food  and  accommodation  are 
far  below  modest  European  standards.  However,  at 
almost  every  town  there  is  a  fonda  of  some  sort,  but 
it  is  advisable  not  to  arrange  for  a  long  stay,  unless 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  hotel  is  tolerable. 
This  important  subject  will,  however,  be  dealt  with  in 
relation  to  the  various  towns. 

5.  MONEY 

The  monetary  systems  of  the  various  Republics  will 
be  referred  to  under  separate  heads.  There  are  a 
good  many  English  banks  in  South  America,  such  as 
the  London  and  River  Plate  Bank  and  the  Anglo- 
South  American  Bank,  through  which  the  traveller 
can  make  arrangements  for  a  supply  of  money.  But 
cases  may  occur  of  changes  in  the  route  or  of  under- 
estimating the  expenses,  and  it  is  well  to  carry  a 
moderate  sum  in  Bank^  of  England  notes,  for  which 
the  exchange  is  always  favourable.  In  the  case  of 
Chile  and  Colombia,  where  the  currency  is  depreciated, 

though  the  hotel  accommodation  has  not  advanced  pan  passu, 
there  is  much  less  cause  for  complaint.  Great  efforts  at  im- 
provement are  also  being  made  in  other  parts  of  South  America. 
Mr.  Martin's  book  was  published  in  1905. 


16         A   GUIDE  TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

it  is  desirable,  before  crossing  the  frontier,  to  obtain 
at  a  bank  a  supply  of  the  country's  money,  because 
the  money-changers  at  the  frontier  or  ports  take 
advantage  of  the  traveller's  ignorance  of  the  rate  of 
exchange.  In  most  countries  gold  is  rare,  and  paper 
money  is  commonly  used.  Nothing  in  the  nature  of 
a  cashbox  or  dispatch-box  should  be  carried,  for  this 
is  naturally  the  first  objective  of  a  thief.  The  pocket 
is  the  best  place  for  money.  The  heaviest  box  should 
be  of  steel,  with  a  good  lock.  (See  below  under 
Equipment.) 

6.  EQUIPMENT 

This  should  be  practically  as  for  a  journey  on  the 
Continent.  In  addition,  there  should  be  riding 
breeches  and  leggings  and  a  heavy  hunting  crop. 
No  arms  are  necessary,  and  sport  is  so  rare  that, 
in  case  an  opportunity  offers,  it  would  probably 
be  better  to  buy  or  borrow  a  gun  than  to  be  at  the 
trouble  of  carrying  a  sporting  equipment  throughout 
the  whole  journey.  As  little  luggage  as  possible 
should  be  taken,  and  it  should  be  packed  in  flat  suit- 
cases and  the  like.  It  is  well  to  have  one  strong  steel 
cabin  trunk  with  a  good  lock.  A  supply  of  cheap, 
soft  shirts  should  be  taken,  and  these  can  be  thrown 
away  when  they  become  ragged.  If  it  is  intended  to 
leave  the  line  of  railway,  a  few  flannel  shirts  should  be 
added  ;  these  the  traveller  can  rough-dry  himself  at 
any  time.  Although  luggage  should  be  light,  it  is  as 
well  to  make  up  one's  mind  from  the  outset  not  to 
purchase  anything  of  much  value  during  the  journey, 
for  clothes  and  all  travelling  necessaries  are  extremely 
dear.  In  addition  to  clothes  suitable  for  English 
winters  and  summers,  a  few  thin  flannel  or  washing 
suits  of  silk  or  holland  should  be  taken.  The 
traveller  should  have  two  soft  hats.  Silk  or  felt  hats 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

and  sun  helmets  are  hardly  necessary.  It  is  very 
inadvisable  to  burden  oneself  with  traveller's  kit, 
although  a  small  spirit  kettle  is  a  convenience. 
Quinine,  chlorodyne,  and  a  few  simple  drugs  should 
be  taken.  A  small  knapsack  and  a  soiled-linen  bag 
are  useful.  The  whole  luggage  ought,  if  possible,  to 
weigh  under  200  Ib.  ;  the  charges  for  wheeling 
luggage  about  a  town  are  exorbitant,  and  when  the 
traveller  desires  to  go  up-country  he  should  leave 
the  bulk  with  a  friend  at  a  port,  and  journey  with  a 
knapsack  or  bag.  Otherwise  he  should  never  part  with 
his  luggage  except  for  a  receipt  from  an  authorized 
person,  or  the  parting  may  be  for  ever.  The  term 
authorized  requires  careful  definition.  One  great 
advantage  in  small  packages  is  that  they  are  admitted 
into  the  railway  carriage ;  some  lines  allow  a  reason- 
able amount  of  baggage,  others  attempt  to  charge  and 
overcharge  for  every  pound. 

7.  PASSPORTS,  CUSTOMS,  CONSULATES,  HOSPITALITY 
Passports  are  unnecessary ;  the  South  Americans 
are  always  glad  of  visitors.  If  the  traveller  wishes 
to  visit  disturbed  parts,  a  letter  from  a  Consul  or 
local  notability  will  be  much  more  effective. 

The  Customs  give  very  little  trouble.  The  traveller 
remarks,  "  Personal  baggage,"  and  his  boxes  are 
seldom  opened,  and  difficulties  seldom  arise  about 
cigars,  etc.,  though  of  course,  if  an  official  discovered 
that  a  traveller  was  carrying  several  hundreds,  there 
would  be  trouble.  There  is  no  object  in  any  infringe- 
ment of  regulations,  for  cigars  are  almost  equally  dear 
everywhere.  Money  should  not  be  offered,  though  a 
small  tip  may  be  given  to  a  person  who  gives  reason- 
able assistance,  but  caution  is  necessary.  If  possible, 
the  traveller  should  ask  the  Foreign  Office  to  give 
him  an  open  letter  to  the  British  Consulates.  In 


i8         A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

any  case,  they  are  always  willing  to  help  a  well-bred 
traveller.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  Con- 
sulates are  not  cloak-rooms,  nor  Consuls  common 
carriers,  and  they  are  to  be  treated  with  considera- 
tion. It  is  most  unfair  and  ill-bred  to  have  letters 
addressed  to  a  Consulate,  with  peremptory  orders  to 
forward  them  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  On  special 
occasions  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  one's  letters 
addressed  thither,  but  a  letter  should  be  sent  to  the 
Consul,  explaining  that  there  is  a  real  necessity,  and 
asking  him  to  keep  letters  till  called  for.  To  persons 
travelling  in  search  of  information  relative  to  trade 
and  industries  the  Consuls  are  invaluable,  but  it  is 
desirable  to  purchase  the  Trade  Reports  in  London 
before  starting,  as  that  is  the  place  of  publication. 
The  information  contained  is  most  useful,  and  it  is 
a  great  pity  that  the  Foreign  Office  will  not  con- 
centrate and  make  it  accessible.  It  ought  to  publish 
a  quarterly  Consular  Review  of  South  America, 
properly  illustrated,  which  should  contain  the 
essence  of  all  Consular  reports,  and  this  should  be 
sent  to  every  important  business  house  and  insti- 
tution connected  with  South  America.  The  Consuls 
of  the  United  States  are  sometimes  helpful.  In  South 
America  the  English  and  people  of  the  country  are 
hospitable.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  letters  of 
introduction,  but  the  friend  who  gives  them  should 
also  be  asked  to  write  to  his  friend  in  South  America. 
Otherwise  there  is  apt  to  be  misunderstanding,  or  the 
person  whose  acquaintance  is  desired  may  be  away 
from  home.  The  new  friend  usually  knows  persons 
upon  other  points  of  the  route,  and  is  willing  to  give 
introductions.  The  first  step  is  to  introduce  the 
traveller  as  an  honorary  member  at  the  club,  where 
there  is  always  pleasant  society. 

Spanish-Americans,  like  Spaniards,  are  reserved,  and 


INTRODUCTORY  19 

do  not  readily  become  intimate  with  strangers,  but 
they  are  extremely  courteous  and  many  of  their  clubs 
are  open  to  English  visitors. 

8.  POST  OFFICES  AND  TELEGRAPHS 

There  are  excellent  postal  and  telegraphic  arrange- 
ments in  all  the  Republics.  As  before  recommended, 
a  traveller  should  not  make  a  practice  of  ordering 
his  letters  to  be  addressed  to  Consuls.  By  far  the 
best  way  is  to  have  them  addressed  to  his  bank, 
and  thence  they  can  be  forwarded  to  any  other  bank 
on  the  line  of  route. 

9.  CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  this  enormous  continent  is,  of 
course,  varied.  The  Southern  Republics  may,  on  the 
whole,  be  called  temperate,  although  there  is  intense 
cold  in  the  extreme  south  and  considerable  heat  in 
the  north.  It  may  be  said x  that  in  Brazil,  Venezuela, 
Colombia,  and  Ecuador  the  weather  will  be  found  hot 
and  oppressive  at  all  times,  and  elsewhere  the  climate 
is  more  or  less  agreeable.  In  these  hot  countries 
November  to  March  is  the  best  time  for  a  visit, 
while  March  to  October  is  suitable  for  the  temperate 
countries ;  but  arrangements  should  be  made  to  pass 
from  Argentina  to  Chile  before  the  end  of  April, 
seeing  that  the  line,  in  spite  of  the  new  tunnel,  is 
likely  to  be  closed  during  the  winter  months,  i.e. 
May  to  October.  The  voyage,  therefore,  should  begin 
in  December  or  January.  If  it  be  prolonged  beyond 
the  plan  sketched  above,  Venezuela  and  the  Amazon 
can  be  taken  in  the  favourable  weather  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  but  climatic  difficulties  are  an  argument 
in  favour  of  making  this  a  separate  trip. 

1  Of  course,  heat  is  seldom  encountered  at  elevations  of  3,000 
feet  and  upwards. 


20         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

10.  TOBACCO,  WINE,  RESTAURANTS 

All  kinds  of  tobacco  are  dear  in  South  America. 
An  English  vessel  usually  sells  pipe  tobacco  and 
cigarettes  at  low  rates,  and  a  small  store  may  be 
taken  ashore  for  personal  use,  but  obviously  it  is 
important  not  to  trespass  upon  the  leniency  of  the 
Custom  House  officials.  They  are  not  disposed  to 
harass  the  pleasure  tourist,  but  the  bringing  in  of 
such  articles  is  a  matter  of  delicacy,  and  is  left  to  the 
good  feeling  of  the  traveller.  There  are  many  wine 
districts  in  South  America,  but  the  beverage  is  always 
heavily  protected  and  not  cheap,  though  often  of  very 
fair  quality.  Spirits,  on  the  whole,  are  not  dear,  and 
bottled  beer  can  usually  be  obtained,  but  most  people 
will  be  wise  to  observe  strict  moderation  in  both. 

Most  hotels  have  restaurants  of  varying  merit.  In 
Buenos  Aires,  Lima  and  several  other  towns  there  is 
good  catering,  but,  speaking  generally,  it  will  be  found 
convenient  to  take  meals  at  the  hotel,  especially  as 
pension  terms  are  the  almost  invariable  rule. 

ii.   SHOPS  AND  STORES 

These,  as  might  be  expected,  vary  infinitely,  from 
the  magnificent  business  houses  of  Buenos  Aires  to 
squalid  shanties,  purveying  German  wares  and  English 
tinned  goods,  such  as  are  found  in  Eastern  bazaars. 
But  a  man  of  modest  wants  can  usually  purchase 
anything  he  is  likely  to  require  in  a  town  of 
10,000  inhabitants  or  upwards,  while  in  the  great 
towns  practically  everything  under  the  sun  can  be 
bought  at  a  price.  But  most  of  the  good  things  are 
imported,  and  so  expensive  that  a  prudent  person  will 
defer  his  purchases,  as  far  as  possible,  until  he  visits 
the  Old  World.  Ludgate  Hill  provides  for  2s.  6d. 
countless  articles  that  are  sold  readily  for  123.  6d. 


INTRODUCTORY  21 

all  over  South  America,  and  most  things,  such  as 
clothes,  trunks,  household  articles,  cutlery  and  all 
fancy  things  are  in  proportion.  As  before  indicated, 
it  is  advisable  to  spend  some  care  and  thought  in 
getting  together  a  light  but  adequate  outfit,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  purchases. 

12.  NEWSPAPERS 

People  who  travel  in  South  America  will  probably 
be  surprised  at  the  excellence  of  the  journals.  Those 
of  the  great  Republics  compare  not  unfavourably  with 
the  newspapers  of  first-class  European  countries,  and 
(to  an  English  taste  at  any  rate)  are  greatly  superior 
to  those  of  the  United  States  and  their  Fleet  Street 
imitations.  To  generalize  about  a  whole  continent 
is  difficult,  but  it  may  be  said  that  on  the  whole  sen- 
sationalism is  conspicuous  by  its  absence,  and  that  the 
wisest  and  most  moderate  thought  is  to  be  found,  not 
in  the  speeches  of  statesmen,  hardly  even  in  the  current 
literature,  but  in  the  columns  of  the  newspapers.  Such 
journals  as  the  Jornal  de  Commercio  of  Rio,  La  Nation 
and  La  Prensa  of  Buenos  Aires,  and,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  El  Comercio  of  Lima  would  do  credit  to 
London  or  Paris.  It  should  be  noted  that  among 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  the  word  Comercio  in  the 
title  indicates  indeed  that  the  paper  is  specially  strong 
on  the  commercial  side,  but  not  that  it  is  a  commercial 
or  financial  organ.  It  is  ordinarily  almost  as  general 
a  newspaper  as  the  Daily  Telegraph. 

13.  LANGUAGE 

As  is  well  known,  Spanish  is  the  language  of  the 
civilized  population,  except  in  Brazil,  where  Portu- 
guese prevails.  Well-educated  South  Americans  fre- 
quently speak  French  or  English  or  both,  but  these 
are  by  no  means  universal  accomplishments,  although 


22          A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

in  the  best  shops  and  hotels  of  the  large  towns  English 
is  readily  understood.  The  enjoyment  and  value  of 
the  tour  will  be  indefinitely  increased  by  some  know- 
ledge of  Spanish  and,  if  possible,  of  Portuguese  also, 
which  are  fortunately  rather  easy  languages.  A  man 
of  average  ability  will  find  that  a  fortnight's  preliminary 
study,  supplemented  by  three  hours  a  day  on  board 
ship,  will  give  him  enough  Spanish  to  read  the  news- 
papers, and  a  little  practice  on  shore  will  soon  enable 
him  to  carry  on  a  conversation  in  a  rough-and-ready 
fashion.  Many  people  will  be  able  to  add  Portuguese 
to  this  modest  outfit,  and  those  who  already  know 
Latin  will  find  their  task  much  lighter,  for  the 
Romans  set  an  indelible  mark  on  the  language  of 
the  Peninsula.  The  grammars  and  dictionaries  of 
Hossfeld's  series  (published  at  13,  Furnival  Street, 
Holborn,  E.G.)  are  reasonable  in  price  and  of  good 
quality,  but  handbooks  and  vocabularies  are  very 
numerous,  and  can  be  bought  at  most  of  the  book- 
shops in  Charing  Cross  Road  or  New  Oxford  Street. 
The  hasty  traveller  will  do  well  to  choose  a  handbook 
which  gives  the  pronunciation  of  common  phrases  as 
well  as  the  actual  Spanish,  for  the  most  intelligent 
foreigner  can  hardly  be  expected  to  recognize  his 
mother  tongue  in  an  English  dress.  A  prosaic  but 
useful  piece  of  advice  is  to  pay  special  attention  to 
culinary  terms ;  otherwise  a  meal  at  a  restaurant  is  a 
lottery  in  which  the  traveller  who  has  not  enough 
Spanish  or  Portuguese  to  read  the  bill  of  fare  (usually 
enormously  long)  is  likely  to  draw  far  more  blanks 
than  prizes.  The  above  elementary  hints  are  obviously 
only  for  the  tourist.  Any  person  who  wishes  to  suc- 
ceed in  business  in  South  America  must,  of  course, 
make  a  careful  study  of  Spanish,  and  learn  to  speak 
and  write  it  fluently.  This  would  appear  to  be 
axiomatic,  but,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  complaints 


INTRODUCTORY  23 

of  the  Consular  Reports  and  other  evidence,  there  are 
many  people  who  tr^to  persuade  South  Americans  to 
buy  goods  in  an  unintelligible  language.  The  day  for 
such  easygoing  methods,  if  indeed  it  ever  existed,  has 
long  since  gone  by,  and  the  importance  of  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  is  now  recognized  by  all  business 
men,  while  the  traveller  for  pleasure  who  neglects 
Spanish  will  lose  at  least  one-half  of  the  enjoyment 
of  his  tour. 

14.  BOOKS  ABOUT  SOUTH  AMERICA 

At  the  end  of  the  account  of  each  Republic  there 
will  be  found  a  brief  note  which  deals  with  one  or  two 
works  describing  that  particular  place  and  likely  to 
prove  useful  to  the  traveller.  But  to  take,  on  a  journey, 
ten  or  more  (physically)  heavy  volumes  might  be 
troublesome,  and  therefore  a  brief  note  on  general 
books  about  South  America  will  not  be  out  of  place. 
It  may  be  added  that  a  few  days  devoted  to  making 
notes  in  a  good  library  will  certainly  not  be  wasted, 
for  the  very  best  guide-book  a  man  can  possess  is  that 
written  by  himself.  If  he  knows  beforehand  exactly 
what  he  wants  to  see,  he  will  see  much  more  than 
those  who  drift  along  in  impartial  ignorance.  The 
two  small  handbooks  on  South  America  have  been 
already  noticed  in  the  preface.1  There  is  an  excel- 
lent description  of  the  whole  of  South  America  in 
Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel ;  the- 
part  to  be  consulted  is  Central  and  South  America, 
vol.  i,  2nd  edition,  published  1909.  This,  of  course,  is 
strong  on  the  geographical  side  and  contains  very  good 
maps.  For  statistics,  the  Statesman's  Year-book  is  too 

1  South  America,  published  by  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company  and  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  and  Prac- 
tical Guide  to  South  America,  by  Albert  Hale,  published  at  Boston, 
U.S.A. 


24         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

well  known  to  need  description.  The  South  American 
series  (published  by  Mr.  T.  Fisher  Unwin)  has  already 
issued  volumes  on  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Peru, 
Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Uruguay,  and  more  will  be 
published  before  long.  Mrs.  Robinson  Wright  has 
written  large  and  handsome  books  (published  in 
Philadelphia)  on  Brazil  and  several  other  Republics  ; 
they  are  well  illustrated  and  contain  much  interesting 
information,  but  the  writer  is  an  incorrigible  optimist, 
and  may  possibly  fail  to  convince  the  reader  that  all  is 
for  the  best  in  the  best  of  all  possible  South  Americas. 
A  monthly  magazine,  entitled  the  Bulletin  of  the  Pan- 
American  Union,  is  edited  at  Washington  by  Mr.  John 
Barrett,  a  gentleman  who  has  a  very  wide  knowledge 
of  Latin  America.  This  periodical  is  well  illustrated 
and  contains  useful  articles  and  notes  which  survey  the 
Western  Hemisphere  with  extensive  view  from  Mexico 
to  Cape  Horn. 

Those  who  wish  for  special  information  about 
remote  districts  should  consult  the  articles  which 
appear  from  time  to  time  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society,  whose  high  standard  of  accuracy 
is  beyond  praise.  A  word  may  now  be  said  of  books  of 
travel  or  history,  dealing  more  or  less  completely  with 
South  America  as  a  whole.  In  the  course  of  this  work 
reference  is  made  more  than  once  to  Darwin's  Voyage 
of  the  Beagle ;  here  it  need  only  be  said  that  a  pocket 
edition  is  an  indispensable  travelling  companion.  A 
very  agreeable  and  comprehensive  book  is  Mr.  F. 
Alcock's  Trade  and  Travel  in  South  America,  published 
1903,  which  describes  a  "round  trip."  The  South 
American  Republics  (1903-4),  by  Mr.  T.  C.  Dawson, 
who  has  had  experience  in  the  United  States  diplo- 
matic service,  gives  a  useful  historical  survey  of  all  the 
countries,  and  Mr.  C.  E.  Akers's  History  of  South 
America  1854-1904  is  also  helpful.  To  indicate  the 


INTRODUCTORY  25 

sources  of  South  American  history  would  be  going 
far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  brief  note,  but  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  those  who  wish  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  the  subject  must  learn  to  read 
Spanish  and  Portuguese.  It  may  be  added  that 
Southey's  History  of  Brazil  is  by  no  means  out  of 
date,  while  such  collections  of  voyages  as  those  made 
by  Hakluyt  and  Purchas  afford  a  delightful  means  of 
learning  the  history  of  South  America  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Another  fairly  comprehensive  work,  which 
deals  chiefly  with  the  industrial  resources  of  the 
countries  described,  is  Through  Five  Republics  (1905), 
by  Mr.  Percy  F.  Martin.  This  gives  much  information 
about  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Uruguay,  and  Venezuela. 
Mr.  C.  W.  Domville  Fife's  Great  States  of  South 
America  (1910)  describes  the  most  important  Republics. 
The  London  Times  often  issues  a  South  American 
supplement  containing  very  valuable  articles  on 
political  and  commercial  subjects.  The  general  ver- 
dict must  be,  on  the  one  hand,  that  a  great  many 
books,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  have  been  written 
on  South  America,  and  some  places  and  questions 
have  been  exhaustively  described  and  discussed,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  are  enormous  gaps  in  our 
knowledge,  and  it  is  still  almost  impossible  to  obtain 
information  about  many  important  districts.  There  is 
ample  matter  for  the  pen  of  a  ready,  still  more  for  that 
of  a  thoughtful,  writer. 


.     .. 

^--WIBlilSPi* 

1  lARGENTINE 

L/FU^ifjr^i         Railways  shown  thus 

::$1  0  200  MILES 


ARGENTINA 

ARGENTINA  is  the  second  in  size  of  the  South 
American  Republics  and  the  first  in  civilization 
and  prosperity.  The  combined  boon  of  climate,  soil, 
and  facilities  of  communication  gives  it  a  great  advan- 
tage over  its  neighbours,  and  the  enormous  yield  of 
grain  and  pastoral  products  makes  it  supremely  im- 
portant in  the  industrial  world.  The  area  is  1,153,119 
square  miles  and  the  population  is  estimated  at 
7,171,910.  It  is  thus  more  than  five  times  as  large 
as  France,  and  has  somewhat  less  population  than 
Belgium.  Such  a  huge  territory,  extending  from  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  has  naturally 
a  great  variety  of-  climate  and  physical  conditions  in 
general,  but  it  falls  into  four  tolerably  well  defined 
geographical  divisions.  These  are  :  Firstly,  the  Andine 
region  proper,  which  runs  from  the  Bolivian  frontier 
along  the  Chilian  border  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Rio 
Negro.  The  Andes  are  a  long  range  of  gigantic 
peaks,  of  which  Aconcagua  attains  a  height  of  about 
23,000  feet,  and  the  climate  is,  in  general,  extremely 
dry  and  the  hills  bare  of  vegetation.  South  of  the  Rio 
Negro  (in  Patagonia)  the  hills  are  lower  and  the 
climate  becomes  more  humid.  At  Ushwiya  in  Tierra 
del  Fuego  the  annual  rainfall  is  120  inches,  while  at 
San  Juan,  almost  under  the  Andes,  it  is  only  3. 
Secondly,  Patagonia,  which  stretches  from  the  Rio 
Colorado  to  Cape  Horn.  This  is  a  thinly  populated 

region  which  used  to  be  known  as  the  Great  Shingle 

27 


28         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Desert.  It  contains  many  fine  rivers,  but  eastwards 
the  rainfall  is  scanty,  and  it  has  hitherto  been  neglected 
by  all  but  sheep  farmers.  In  the  north,  however, 
irrigation  is  being  applied  and  the  wheat  prospects 
are  good.  Thirdly,  the  Gran  Chaco,  a  rough  denomi- 
nation for  the  northern  region,  which  has  a  hot  and 
moist  climate,  produces  rice  and  sugar,  and  contains 
much  virgin  forest.  The  north-eastern  part  is  very 
imperfectly  explored,  and  many  of  the  Indians  inhabit- 
ing the  forests  are  hostile.  Fourthly,  the  Pampas,  the 
heart  of  the  Republic,  which  have  given  Argentina  its 
fame  and  wealth  and  comprise  all  the  best  pastoral 
and  grain-growing  lands.  This  is  the  true  Argentina, 
or  the  historic  Plate  district,  as  the  whole  country  on 
each  side  of  the  estuary  used  to  be  called — a  land  that 
yielded  no  gold  or  silver  to  the  adventurers,  a  long 
succession  of  flat,  grassy  stretches,  where  wild  cattle 
multiplied  apace,  and  famous  even  in  the  old  Spanish 
days  for  the  export  of  hides.  Up  to  comparatively 
recent  years  the  cattle  were  slaughtered  for  their  hides 
only,  and  their  carcasses  left  to  rot  on  the  ground,  so 
that  travellers  constantly  expressed  vexation  at  the 
sight  of  waste,  not  only  of  meat,  but  of  valuable  vege- 
table products,  which  could  have  been  raised  in 
profusion  had  there  but  been  a  market  for  them. 
With  the  improvement  of  industry  and  the  making  of 
railways  a  great  trade  in  meat  and  wool  sprang  up, 
and  in  course  of  time  alfalfa  (lucerne)  was  introduced, 
which  made  the  task  of  fattening  cattle  easy.  It  was 
also  discovered  that  the  Pampas  were  marvellously  well 
adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  maize,  and 
now  the  railways  pour  vast  cargoes  of  grain  into  ocean- 
going steamers  at  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario  and  Bahia 
Blanca.  The  tendency  is  for  arable  to  encroach  upon 
pastoral  land.  Thus  the  picturesque  gaucho  plays  a  less 
prominent  part  in  the  country  than  he  used  to  do,  but 


ARGENTINA  29 

he  is  still  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the  Pampas. 
Although  the   derivation  of   the  word   is  disputed,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  name  was  brought  from  Spain, 
but  the  gauchos  have  undoubtedly  more  Indian  than 
Spanish  blood  in  their  veins.     They  are  expert  stock- 
riders,   bringing   down    refractory   cattle    with    their 
unerring  bolas,  and  their  wonderful  feats  of  horseman- 
ship   have   been   described   more   vividly   and    more 
accurately   (as   is   the   case   with   many   other   things 
South   American)    by    Darwin   in    The    Voyage   of  the 
Beagle    than  by   all  the  numerous  writers  who  have 
succeeded   him.     The    gauchos   are   brave,  cruel  and 
reckless  ;  they  thoroughly  know  their  craft,  and  they 
have    the    frankness,   hospitality    and    rude    poetical 
instincts  that  go  with  a  life  of  boot  and  saddle.     They 
are  changing,  but  not  yet  changed.   The  Pampas  them- 
selves are  slowly  changing  and  being  gradually  occu- 
pied by  the  small  cultivator  from  Northern   Italy,  but 
at  present  Argentina  is  big  enough  for  both.    Droughts 
and  locusts  are  the  curse  of  the  agriculturist,  and  one 
of  the  chief  matters  of  State  policy  is  discussion  of  the 
means   of   destroying  the   winged   pest.     As    yet    no 
effectual  means  have  been  discovered,  yet  even  locusts 
put  but  a  slight  check  upon  the  exuberant  fertility  of 
the  country.1 

Drought  is  a  more  serious  danger,  for  the  normal 
rainfall  of  Argentina  is  barely  sufficient  for  its  needs, 
but  in  many  districts  the  defect  can  be  mitigated  by 
irrigation.  Apart  from  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires, 
where  the  average  rainfall  is  something  over  30  inches, 
the  following  figures  relating  to  several  widely  sepa- 
rated towns  will  give  some  idea  of  the  general  climate 
of  the  Republic.  Rosario  has  46  inches,  Tucuman  39, 
Cordoba  26,  Salta  23,  Bahia  Blanca  19,  La  Rioja  12, 
Mendoza  6.  The  river  system  of  Argentina  consists 
1  See  Koebel,  Argentina  Past  and  Present,  pp.  206-16. 


30         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

chiefly  of  the  huge  streams  which    discharge  them- 
selves into  the   Plate  estuary.     The  Parana  rises  far 
away  in  the  mountains   of   Brazil,  and  first  touches 
Argentina   in    the    Province    of    Misiones,    near    the 
famous    Iguazu    Falls.     Then   it   forms   the   southern 
boundary   of  the   Republic  of  Paraguay,  and  a  little 
north  of  Corrientes  absorbs  the   Paraguay  River,  and 
turning  abruptly  south,  makes  its  way  to  the  Plate. 
The  breadth  at  Rosario,  some  200  miles  from  Buenos 
Aires,  is  20  miles,  and  it  is  estimated  that  during  the 
floods  the  volume  of  water  rolled  down  to  the  sea  is 
1,650,000  cubic  feet  a  second.     Its  noble  tributary,  the 
Paraguay,  receives  two  large  affluents,  the  Pilcomayo 
and  the  Bermejo,  which  both  drain  the  northern  parts 
of   the   Gran    Chaco.     The    River    Uruguay    divides 
Argentina  from  the  little   Republic  of  that  name  and 
Brazil,  meeting  the  many  mouths  of  the  Parana  some 
distance  to  the  north  of   Buenos  Aires.     In  the  arid 
west  several  large  rivers,  such  as  the  Mendoza  and  the 
Dolce,  fail   to  find  their  way  to  the  Plate  and  lose 
themselves  in  sands  or  morasses.     In  Patagonia  the 
chief  streams  are  the  Colorado,  the  Negro,  the  Chubut, 
the    Deseado,   the    Chico,  the    Santa    Cruz    and   the 
Gallegos.      Every   Argentine    river   necessarily    flows 
east  or  south,  for  the  Andes   form   an  impenetrable 
barrier  to  the  Pacific.      The  excellence  of  the  Parana 
as  a  waterway  has  caused   Rosario,  within  some  fifty 
years,  to  grow  from  an  insignificant  village  to  a  town  of 
200,000  inhabitants,  and  the  opening  up  of  the  Pampas 
by  great  lines   of  railways  has  enabled  the  produce 
to  be  brought  to  the  sea  for  export.     The   lakes  of 
Argentina  are  numerous  and  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  country ;  there  are  many  hundreds  in  the  Province 
of  Buenos  Aires  alone.     The  largest  are  in  Patagonia. 
In  ancient  times  the  major  part  of  the  country  was 
covered   by   the  great   Pampean    Sea.     The   Pampas, 


ARGENTINA  31 

formerly  submerged,  are  now  overlaid  with  loess. 
The  Andes  consist  of  gneiss,  granite  and  schist. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  quaternary,  but 
the  north-east  is  sandstone  of  uncertain  age. 

The  flora  of  Argentina  varies  greatly  and  falls  into 
three  geographical  divisions — the  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical north,  the  treeless  Pampas,  and  the  deserts 
and  forests  of  the  south.  In  the  north  the  palm  is  the 
most  characteristic  tree,  and  the  wax  palm  (Copernicia 
ceriferd)  is  the  most  important  variety.  The  pindo 
(Cocos  australis)  is  also  common.  The  algarroba 
(Prosopis)  is  a  valuable  tree,  and  much  valuable  timber 
is  to  be  obtained,  including  the  quebracho,  the  urunday, 
and  the  lapacho.  The  Pampas,  as  is  well  known,  are 
in  many  places  covered  by  the  pampa  grass  (Gynerium 
argentetun),  but  the  grass  varies  considerably,  and  the 
thistle  is  an  unwelcome  European  intruder.  The 
paraiso  (Melia  azedarach)  has  been  introduced,  and 
is  one  of  the  few  trees  that  flourish  here.  The  Pampas 
are  said  by  Hudson  to  be  the  poorest  in  floral  species  of 
any  fertile  district  of  the  globe.  In  the  desert  parts  of 
Patagonia  the  vegetation  is  mostly  scrub.  In  the  humid 
west  there  are  dense  forests,  the  beech  being  common. 

The  fauna  of  Argentina  is  less  imposing  than  was 
the  case  in  prehistoric  times,  when  huge  mammoths, 
as  is  proved  by  numerous  remains,  used  to  roam  the 
Pampas.  The  typical  South  American  animals- 
jaguars,  pumas,  tapirs,  monkeys — are  numerous  in 
the  north.  The  birds  are  very  various  and  very  gay 
in  plumage.  To  the  plains  jaguars  and  pumas  have 
been  attracted  by  the  herds  of  cattle,  but  the  guanaco 
is  there  the  chief  animal.  The  ostrich  (Rhea  Ameri- 
cana) is  common.  An  interesting  animal  is  the 
viscacha  (Lagostomus  trichodactylus),  which  burrows 
in  the  earth  and  lives  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
burrowing  owl.  Reptiles  are  not  important,  and  the 


A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 


alligator  is  invariably  small.  In  some  places  ticks  and 
other  parasites  are  troublesome.  The  most  remark- 
able and  the  most  satisfactory  feature  of  the  Argentine 
fauna  is  the  immense  number^of  cattle  and  sheep, 
which  were  introduced  early  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and,  having  flourished  in  a  surprising  manner,  now 
constitute  a  main  source  of  the  country's  wealth. 

The  Republic  is  divided  into  14  Provinces  and  10 
Territories.  Of  the  Provinces  the  most  populous  are 
Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Cordoba,  Corrientes  and 
Tucuman.  The  Territories  are  undeveloped  regions 
which,  roughly  speaking,  make  a  northern,  western 
and  southern  fringe  round  the  heart  of  the  Republic, 
and  their  population  is  extremely  scanty.  For  example, 
the  territory  of  Santa  Cruz  has  an  area  of  109,142 
square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of  4,394. 

The  prosperity  of  Argentina  has  made  it  attractive 
to  immigrants  from  Southern  Europe.  Population 
is  the  Republic's  great  need,  and  they  flock  rapidly  in  ; 
but  there  is  unfortunately  a  considerable  outflow, 
because  in  bad  times  some  of  them  seek  new  fields, 
and,  further,  many  peasants  come  over  from  Europe 
for  the  harvest  only,  and  return  to  their  homes  when 
it  has  been  reaped.  The  following  figures  show  the 
tendency  in  recent  years  : — 


Year. 

Immigrants. 

Emigrants. 

Excess  in  favour  of 
Immigration. 

1904 

125,567 

38,923 

86,644 

177,117 

42,869 

134,248 

1906 

252,536 

00,124 

192,412 

1907 

209,103 

90,190 

118,913 

1908 

255>7IO 

85,412 

170,298 

1909 

231,084 

94,644 

136,440 

I9IO 

289,640 

97>854 

191,786 

I9II 

225,772 

107,632 

118,140 

1912 

348,570 

142,460 

2O6,IIO 

ARGENTINA 


33 


The  nationality  of  the  various  immigrants  between 
1857  and  1911  is  shown  : — 

Italians 2,052,925 

Spaniards ...  1,132,460 

French 201,732 

Russians           115,827 

Syrians  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  89,442 

Austrians          74>i9i 

Germans           50,731 

British 48,526 

Swiss     30,619 

Portuguese       16,419 

North  Americans        5,oio 

The  following  is  the  analysis  for  1911  : — 

Spaniards         ,.  118,723 

Italians 58,185 

Austrians          24,785 

Germans          23,450 

Swiss     16,694 

French 4,916 

British I»73O 

In  the  eighties  there  was  a  large  influx  which  was 
checked  by  the  financial  crisis  of  1891,  but  now  the 
figures  are  as  high  as  ever.  In  this  movement  the 
Italians  have  played  a  great  part,  and  Argentina  has 
been  called  "  Italy's  finest  colony/'  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  country  would  fill  up  more  rapidly  if 
better  inducements  were  offered  to  small  rural  pro- 
prietors. The  immigration  law  is  liberal,  although  all 
males  born  in  Argentina  are  liable  to  military  service. 
The  Consul-General  of  Argentina  in  London  has  given 
the  following  advice  :  "  The  best  chances  of  employ- 
ment are,  of  course,  for  those  who  can  speak  some 
Spanish  and  are  farm  labourers,  dairymen,  or  stock- 
men of  practical  experience ;  but  mechanics  are  in 
fair  demand,  especially  in  the  building  and  allied 


34         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

trades.  Clerks,  shop  assistants,  and  others  in  search 
of  office  work,  etc.,  are  strongly  advised  not  to 
emigrate,  unless  they  can  count  beforehand  on  a 
good  chance  of  immediate  employment.  Persons 
with  some  capital,  not  burdened  by  families  having 
many  members  unable  to  work,  may  find  good 
openings  even  in  towns ;  but  as  a  rule  there  is 
more  chance  of  success  in  agricultural  or  pastoral 
enterprises."  Although  there  is  a  flourishing  Welsh 
colony  at  Chubut,  in  Patagonia,  Argentina  in  general 
is  not  a  place  for  the  "  small  man  "  from  the  United 
Kingdom.  In  the  higher  grades  of  manual  and  other 
labour  there  are  numerous  openings,  but  the  post 
should  be  secured  before  leaving  home. 

In  his  latest  Report  the  British  Consul-General  at 
Buenos  Aires  says  :  "  In  the  early  part  of  1913  the 
distress  among  immigrants  from  the  United  Kingdom 
became  so  acute  that  a  warning  had  to  be  issued  by 
the  Emigrants'  Information  Office  in  London.  This 
warning  applies  with  special  force  to  unskilled  work- 
men and  clerks  in  search  of  speculative  employment 
in  Argentina."  The  fact  is  that  Argentina  is  not  a 
country  for  the  English  labourer,  who  cannot  possibly 
compete  with  the  Spanish  or  Italian  peasant,  nor,  as 
has  been  already  indicated,  has  the  population  problem 
been  yet  settled  to  the  extent  of  making  Argentina 
attractive  as  a  permanent  home  even  for  the  peasant 
of  Southern  Europe.  The  Report  says  :  "  English- 
men should  bear  in  mind  that  Argentina  is  not  a 
manufacturing  country,  and  those  who  do  not  bring 
sufficient  money  with  them  to  take  up  holdings  and 
work  them  incur  great  risk  in  venturing  to  this 
country.  At  present  the  national  Government  does 
not  make  any  gratuitous  land  grants  as  an  inducement 
to  the  intending  settler.  With  enormous  tracts  of 
valuable  land  lying  idle  in  the  almost  unpopulated 


ARGENTINA  %      35 

districts,  the  problem  of  labour  supply  is  naturally 
one  of  vital  consequence,  and  it  is  now  being  urged 
that  it  is  by  withholding  the  offer  of  cheap  land  and 
proper  protection  to  the  settler  that  the  large  exodus 
continues  unchecked  either  by  the  great  natural  re- 
sources of  the  country  or  the  remarkable  fertility  of 
the  soil." 

PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

In  1912  the  imports  amounted  to       ...     ^76,970,700 
„         „   exports  „  ...       91,878,300 

These  figures  are  a  record  for  the  foreign  trade. 
The  imports  chiefly  consist  of  textiles,  coal,  every 
kind  of  railway  and  building  material,  locomotives, 
machinery  and  agricultural  implements,  pitch-pine, 
naphtha,  petroleum  and  various  oils,  sackcloth,  motor- 
cars, yerba  mate  and  wine.  The  following  countries 
had  the  chief  share  in  the  import  trade  : — 

United  Kingdom           ^23,733,800 

Germany 12,788,300 

United  States      11,825,900 

France      ...  7,523,700 

Italy          6,497,400 

Belgium   ...                    4,074,100 

Spain  2,385,700 

Brazil        1,909,400 

Great  Britain  has  long  occupied  a  most  command- 
ing position  in  the  trade  of  Argentina,  and  her  activity 
continues  to  expand,  but  relatively  it  cannot  be  said 
that  her  position  has  improved.  A  few  years  ago 
Great  Britain  sent  to  Argentina  more  goods  than  the 
United  States,  Germany  and  Belgium  combined  ; 
now  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  far  from  being  the 
case.  All  honest  competition  is  welcomed,  but  it 
should  be  added  that  some  of  the  methods  of  the 


36         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

United  States  are  neither  beneficial  to  foreign  traders 
nor  to  Argentina  herself.  The  trust  methods,  while 
restricting  competition,  increase  the  cost  of  living,  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  Argentine  Government  to  take 
sharp  measures  against  those  who  endeavour  to  enrich 
themselves  at  the  cost  of  all  others.  In  coal,  railway 
material,  textiles,  especially  cottons  and  many  kinds 
of  metal  goods,  Great  Britain  has  the  largest  share. 
The  bulk  of  the  .sackcloth  comes  from  India. 
Motor-cars  come  principally  from  France,  agricul- 
tural machinery,  naphtha  and  petroleum  from  the 
United  States,  general  machinery,  paper,  jewellery 
and  many  small  items  from  Germany.  In  Sheffield 
and  Birmingham  goods  the  market  is  being  lost  to 
Germany,  and  in  several  other  branches  our  firms 
have  not  maintained  their  ground.  However,  British 
trade  in  Argentina  is  undoubtedly  in  a  most  flourish- 
ing condition.  This  result  is  due  largely  to  the 
immense  amount  of  capital  which  our  investors  have 
entrusted  to  the  Republic.  In  this  respect  France 
comes  next ;  her  capitalists  have  of  late  shown  con- 
siderable energy  in  the  Republic,  and  the  amount  of 
French  capital  invested  stands  at  nearly  50  millions 
sterling. 

The  exports  fall  into  two  great  groups — agricultural 
products  (chiefly  grain)  and  pastoral  products  (chiefly 
meat  and  wool).  The  following  countries  are  most 
prominent  in  the  export  trade  : — 

United  Kingdom           ^24,274,700 

Germany 10,799,000 

Belgium   ...                               ...  7,451,600 

France     7,210,400 

United  States     6,478,200 

Brazil       ...                    ...  4»529>3°o 

Italy          ...                    4,029,600 

Holland 3,205,400 


ARGENTINA  37 

Our  country  is  exceptionally  situated  for  trade  with 
Argentina,  as  we  require  food  and  raw  material  and 
Argentina  needs  manufactured  goods  and  coal.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  United  States  produces  much  the 
same  staples  as  Argentina,  and  therefore  buys  com- 
paratively little  in  her  markets.  Apart  from  Brazil, 
the  trade  with  other  South  American  Republics  is 
surprisingly  small ;  that  with  her  neighbours,  Chile, 
Bolivia  and  Uruguay,  is  hardly  worth  mentioning. 
This  is  partly  the  result  of  jealous  protection,  but  it 
is  very  noticeable  that  the  various  Republics  have  few 
dealings  with  one  another  and  take  little  interest  in 
what  is  happening  over  the  border,  unless  a  boundary 
dispute  happens  to  be  in  progress.  Chilian  news- 
papers are  hardly  ever  seen  in  Argentina,  and  vice 
versa. 

The  wheat  production  of  Argentina  increased  at  an 
enormous  pace  during  the  early  years  of  the  present 
century,  reaching  in  1908  the  figure  of  5,238,700  tons, 
but  of  late  years  it  has  been  adversely  affected  by  the 
drought.  There  are  now  17,000,000  acres  under 
wheat,  but,  if  labour  were  available,  it  would  be  easy 
to  increase  the  area  to  80,000,000  acres.  Owing  to 
this  lack  of  population  and  the  uncertainty  of  the 
rainfall,  the  Republic  cannot  be  implicitly  relied  upon 
as  an  exporter,  and,  further,  the  methods  of  cultivation 
are  entirely  extensive,  and  thus  produce  very  indif- 
ferent results,  considering  the  acreage.  Mr.  A.  Stuart 
Pennington  remarks  :  "  The  average  yield  per  acre  in 
the  United  Kingdom  is  31  bushels,  in  Manitoba 
(Canada)  19  bushels,  the  United  States  13  bushels  ; 
but  in  Argentina  it  rarely  exceeds  12  bushels  per  acre, 
and  is,  as  a  rule,  nearer  10."  The  following  figures 
show  the  fluctuations  in  wheat  exports  : — 


38         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Tons 

In  1908  the  wheat  exported  was 3,500,000 

„  1909   „         „          ...  2,514,100 

„  i910   »        »     1,883,600 

„  I911   »        »     2,285,900 

„  i912   »        »     2,629,000 

The  chief  corn-bearing  region  lies  in  the  Provinces 
of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  F£,  Cordoba,  Entre  Rios  and 
the  Central  Pampas.  With  irrigation  Patagonia  might 
be  a  great  wheat-growing  district.  Argentina  now 
exports  more  maize  than  any  other  country.  In  1910 
the  crop  was  a  failure,  but  in  1909  the  production  was 
4,450,000  tons,  and  in  1911  it  was  7,515,000  tons.  In 
linseed  also  the  Republic  heads  the  list  of  exporting 
countries,  producing  yearly  about  600,000  tons. 
Alfalfa  has  of  late  become  an  astonishingly  produc- 
tive crop,  and  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  estancieros, 
who  are  thus  able  to  fatten  stock  quickly,  hi  1912 
the  yield  was  4,031,300  tons.  Oats  are  cultivated  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Sugar  is  a  large  crop,  and 
Tucuman  is  the  centre  of  the  industry  ;  it  is  perhaps 
more  completely  dependent  upon  protection  than  any 
other  industry  of  its  size  in  the  world.  The  vine  is 
a  valuable  crop,  and  to  the  production  of  wine  the 
Province  of  Mendoza  contributes  by  far  the  largest 
share.  The  total  yield  is  over  40  million  gallons.  A 
traveller  says:  "The  most  popular  wines  are  red  and 
white  clarets,  the  better  qualities  of  which  are  excel- 
lent, but  many  other  kinds  are  made.  The  country 
wine  is  by  no  means  as  cheap  as  it  ought  to  be,  owing 
to  high  protection.  Although  this  excellent  industry 
is  rapidly  increasing,  it  does  not  go  near  to  supplying 
home  consumption  ;  indeed,  the  value  of  the  imports 
of  wines  and  spirits  is  slightly  in  excess  of  the  total 
production.  The  export  of  wine  is,  of  course,  prac- 
tically nil,  for  neighbouring  countries  follow  the 


ARGENTINA  39 

example  of  Argentina  in  protecting  their  own  vine- 
yards by  high  tariffs  and  every  kind  of  fomento." 
Tobacco  is  not  a  very  important  crop,  and  the  acreage 
has  lately  fallen  from  40,000  to  24,400  acres.  Little 
is  at  present  done  in  the  way  of  growing  cotton,  but 
the  possibilities  of  that  crop  in  the  Chaco  are  enor- 
mous. The  sub-tropical  region  in  the  north  yields 
much  valuable  timber,  the  best  being  the  famous  red 
quebracho  (Lozopterigium  lorentzii).  In  1911  there 
were  exported  473,644  tons  of  quebracho  logs,  and 
the  extract  of '  quebracho  is  very  valuable  for  tanning 
purposes. 

The  pastoral  industries  are  the  oldest  in  the  country, 
having  been  founded  in  1536,  when  Pedro  de  Men- 
doza  set  down  72  horses  and  mares  in  the  country. 
The  Spaniards  also  introduced  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
the  export  of  hides  soon  became  a  flourishing  busi- 
ness. The  following  is  the  census  of  animals  in 
Argentina  : — 

Sheep 67,211,754 

Cattle 29,116,625 

Horses ...  7,531,376 

Goats 3,245,086 

Hogs ...  1,403,591 

Mules 4°5>O37 

Donkeys         285,088 

Their  value  is  estimated  at  some  .£129,000,000. 
Immense  pains  were  taken  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  to  improve  the  breed  of  horned 
cattle,  and  the  results  are  to  be  seen  in  the  magnificent 
herds  in  all  parts  of  the  Pampas.  The  Durhams  are, 
on  the  whole,  the  favourite  breed,  crossing  well  with 
the  native  stock,  and  are  specially  valuable  when 
lucerne  can  be  obtained.  They  are  largely  employed 
by  the  well-known  Bovril  Company.  Next  in  favour 
comes  the  Hereford,  the  white-faced,  red-bodied 


40         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

animal  that  flourishes  exceedingly  on  the  Pampa 
grass.  They  are  employed  by  the  Lemco  and  Oxo 
estancias.  The  Aberdeen  Angus  is  also  highly 
esteemed.^  Equal  pains  have  been  taken  to  improve 
the  breed  of  horses,  and  a  glance  at  any  show-list  or 
racing  programme  will  show  the  high  value  placed 
upon  English  blood-stock.  The  improvements  in  the 
methods  of  slaughter,  and  especially  in  chilling  and 
freezing  meat,  have  caused  a  rapid  expansion  in  the 
cattle  trade. 

The  life  on  the  estancia  has  been  a  favourite  theme 
for  the  pen  of  the  descriptive  writer,  but  conditions 
are  both  more  luxurious  and  more  scientific  than 
they  were  in  old  days. 

The  merino  sheep,  which  the  Spaniards  introduced, 
ran  wild  for  nearly  two  centuries,  and  became  poor 
and  coarse.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  pure-bred 
rams  were  re-introduced  from  Spain,  and  the  export 
of  merino  wool  became  large,  but  experience  gradually 
showed  that  the  rich  pastures  of  Argentina  were  far 
more  suitable  to  English  breeds  than  to  the  merino, 
and,  as  the  English  also  afforded  better  mutton,  they 
were  preferred,  and  a  hardy  cross-breed  came  into 
favour.  At  present  seven-eighths  of  the  wool  exported 
is  cross-bred.  The  Lincoln  is  the  favourite  breed, 
but  in  Patagonia  the  hardy  Romney  Marsh  is  pre- 
ferred. In  1911  the  wool  export  was  330,836  bales. 
The  trade  in  frozen  mutton  is  less  than  in  beef,  but  is 
very  considerable  ;  in  1912  the  export  was  valued  at 
;£i,  1 23,000.  Considerable  mineral  wealth  is  known 
to  exist,  but  hitherto  its  development  has  been  insig- 
nificant and  far  from  lucrative,  although  there  is  a 
famous  mine  at  Famatina,  in  the  Province  of  Rioja, 
where  gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  produced.  Hardly 
any  coal  is  found.  Great  interest  has  been  taken  in 
the  numerous  discoveries  of  petroleum  which  have 


ARGENTINA  41 

been  made  in  many  parts  of  the  Republic — in  Jujuy, 
in  Salta,  at  San  Cristobal  in  Santa  F£,  in  Mendoza, 
and,  in  particular,  in  Commodoro  Rivadavia  in 
Chtibut.  It  is  expected  that  the  annual  output  will 
soon  be  nearly  30,000  tons.  The  lack  of  coal  is 
likely  to  prevent  Argentina  from  becoming  a  con- 
siderable manufacturing  country.  The  only  important 
manufactures  are  the  semi-rural  ones  of  sugar,  wine, 
milling,  and  meat-preserving.  The  sugar  mills  employ 
most  hands.  There  are  said  to  be  over  30,000  factories 
in  Argentina,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  are  small,  as  they 
employ  only  329,490  workers.  They  include  brick- 
works, boot  factories,  sawmills,  carriage  works,  tobacco 
factories,  tanneries,  breweries,  wool  factories,  match 
factories,  and  many  others.  Unlike  Brazil,  Argentina 
has  very  few  cotton-mills,  possibly  owing  to  the  drier 
climate.  Although  the  Republic  has  failed  to  develop 
manufactures  on  a  large  scale,  a  high  protective  tariff 
is  in  force  with  this  object,  and  thus  living  is  very 
expensive.  The  latest  Consular  Report  issued  at 
Buenos  Aires  says  :  "  In  common  with  other  progres- 
sive countries,  Argentina  has  experienced  an  almost 
continuous  rise  in  the  prices  of  food-stuffs  and  manu- 
factured goods  ;  1912  shows  an  appreciable  increase 
in  the  cost  of  living.  This  increase  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  the  prices  of  articles  of  prime  necessity. 
The  rise  at  the  outset  was  accompanied  by  an  increase 
in  the  rate  of  wages,  but  the  proportion  has  not  been 
maintained,  and  the  working-man  is  consequently 
the  sufferer.  ...  The  question  has  also  come  before 
Congress  with  a  view  to  lowering  the  customs  duties 
on  articles  of  primary  necessity."  Bread  and  rent 
have  gone  up  in  price  to  an  alarming  extent  during 
the  last  few  years. 

Nothing   has   done    more    to    create    industries   in 
Argentina  than  the    railways.      There  are  now  about 


42         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

20,000  miles  of  railway  in  operation.  Much  informa- 
tion about  them  may  be  obtained  from  a  little  book 
entitled  the  Manual  of  Argentine  Railways,  by  S.  H.  M. 
Killik,  which  is  published  annually  in  London.  Only 
12  per  cent,  of  the  total  mileage  is  owned  by  the 
State.  There  are  four  great  lines  which,  like  many  of 
the  numerous  smaller  Argentine  railways,  are  under 
British  management  and  have  been  built  with  British 
capital. 

1.  The  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  principally  serves 
the   great    Province   of    Buenos    Aires,   and   is   now 
extending   far   beyond    Bahia    Blanca,   originally   the 
southernmost  point,  and  will  eventually  pass  through 
the  territory  of  Neuquen  and  penetrate  through  the 
Andes  into  Chile.     Its  mileage,  which  is  3,641,  is  larger 
than    that    of    any   other    Argentine    line,    and    691 
additional  miles  will  soon  be  open. 

2.  The  Buenos  Aires  and  Pacific  is  the  only  railway  in 
South    America     which     has    succeeded    in    linking 
together  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  for,  thanks 
to  its  enterprise,  a  railway  journey  may  now  be  made 
from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso.     The  last  link  in  the 
chain   was   forged   in   April,    1910,    when   the  tunnel 
connecting  Chile  with   Argentina  was  opened.     The 
company  is,  therefore,  justified  in  its  proud  title   of 
Pacific.     It  has  3,416  miles  in  operation. 

3.  The  Buenos  Aires   Western,  having  made  a  small 
beginning  in  1857,,  is  the  oldest  of  Argentine  railways. 
It  runs  from  the  capital  to  Mercedes,  and  then  takes  a 
southern  course,  serving  a  rich    wheat  country,  and 
eventually  reaching  Bahia  Blanca.     It  has  a  mileage 
of  1,781. 

4.  The  Central  Argentine,  an  extremely  well-managed 
line,  connects  Buenos  Aires  firstly  with   Rosario  and 
afterwards  with  Cordoba  and  Tucuman,  far  away  to 
the    north-east.     Although   severe   competition   is  en- 


ARGENTINA  43 

countered  on  certain  parts  of  the  route,  it  is  probably 
the  most  prosperous  railway  in  the  whole  of  Argentina. 
It  carries  an  immense  quantity  of  grain.  The  mileage 
is  3,067,  and  many  extensions  and  improvements  are 
being  made. 

All  these  four  lines  are  broad  gauge,  5^  feet,  while 
the  other  lines,  numerous  but  mostly  English,  employ 
a  variety  of  gauges.  The  British  capital  invested  in 
railways  alone  is  estimated  at  £194,500,000,  and  banks, 
tramways  and  other  enterprises  account  for  about 
£40,000,000  more.  The  railway  policy  of  the 
Argentine  Government  has  always  been  strongly  in 
favour  of  private  enterprise  as  against  any  form  of 
Government  management,  but  under  the  Mitr£  Law 
there  is  an  excellent  provision  under  which  those 
railway  companies  that  accept  it  pay  a  tax  of  3  per 
cent,  of  their  net  receipts,  and  the  sum  raised  is  spent 
in  constructing  and  maintaining  roads  and  bridges 
which  give  access  to  the  lines.  This  is  all  the  more 
necessary  because  Argentine  roads  are  not,  generally 
speaking,  good.  Almost  every  book  upon  the 
Republic  describes  the  railways.  In  the  notes  upon 
the  towns  some  particulars  are  given  about  the  various 
means  of  communication. 


COINAGE 

The  real  monetary  unit  is  the  gold  dollar  ;  $5.04  are 
equivalent  to  the  pound  sterling.  There  is  not, 
however,  any  gold  or  silver  coin  in  general  circulation, 
and  none  has  been  for  many  years.  Paper  money 
constitutes  the  circulating  medium  of  the  country, 
and  $100  paper  (termed  moneda  nacional)  have  the 
exchangeable  value  of  $44  gold.  This  state  of  things 
has  been  in  force  since  1899,  when  the  Conversion 
Law  was  passed.  In  1912  the  paper  money  in  circula- 


44         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

tion  was  722,924,213  paper  pesos.  The  Banco  de  la 
Nacion  Argentina  has  a  capital  of  120,999,950  paper 
pesos. 

FINANCE 

In  1912  the  revenue  was          ^29,377,100 

„        „    expenditure  was ^28,776,000 

The  internal  debt  is  £46,345,000,  and  the  external 
£58,276,000.  Although  the  revenue  is  large  and 
expanding,  the  expenditure  usually  exceeds  it,  for  the 
finances  are  in  a  state  of  considerable  confusion,  which 
is  regretted  by  business  men.  About  five-sixths  of  the 
gold  revenue  comes  from  customs  duties.  In  spite  of 
haphazard  methods  of  finance,  the  credit  of  Argentina 
is  good,  owing  to  her  immense  wealth,  and  her  4  per 
cent,  gold  loans,  are  usually  quoted  at  90  or  there- 
abouts. 

HISTORY 

When  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  first  came  to 
South  America  the  country  now  called  Argentina  was 
principally  inhabited  in  the  south  by  the  warlike 
Araucanians,  and  in  the  north  by  the  more  docile 
Guaranies.  We  have  but  scanty  information  about 
them,  and  the  history  of  the  country  may  be  said  to 
begin  in  1516,  when  the  first  European  sailed  up  the 
River  Plate.  This  was  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  a  brave 
navigator  dispatched  by  the  King  of  Castile,  but  his 
fate  was  tragic,  for  on  landing  he  and  his  boat 
crew  were  killed  and  eaten  by  savages,  so  that 
the  remainder  of  the  crew,  horrified  by  their  com- 
mander's fate,  made  the  best  of  their  way  home  ;  and 
an  exploring  expedition  by  Cabot,  made  ten  years  later, 
left  no  permanent  results.  It  was  in  1535  that  the 
Spaniards  made  their  first  attempt  at  a  colony,  when 


ARGENTINA  45 

Pedro  de  Mendoza  appeared  with  a  large  expedition 
and  founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires — "  so  named 
in  regard  to  the  freshness  of  the  air."  The  colonists 
suffered  great  hardships  from  privations  and  the 
hostility  of  the  Indians,  and  Buenos  Aires  was  twice 
abandoned  during  the  early  stages  of  its  struggling 
existence  ;  but  Asuncion,  far  to  the  north,  was  much 
more  successful  under  the  governorship  of  the  able 
Irala,  who  kept  the  Spanish  flag  flying,  and  thus  a 
base  of  operations  was  established,  which  enabled 
the  Spaniards  to  spread  their  power  in  several 
directions.  From  Asuncion  the  enterprising  Juan  de 
Garay  pushed  southward,  and  in  1573  founded  Santa 
Fe  at  the  junction  of  the  Parana  and  Paraguay.  In 
1580  he  founded  Buenos  Aires  for  the  third  time,  and 
the  city  very  quickly  began  to  prosper,  and  became  an 
important  emporium  for  the  trade  in  hides.  Although 
but  forty-five  years  had  elapsed  since  the  Spaniards 
had  introduced  horses  and  horned  cattle,  the  Pampas 
were  already  grazed  by  vast  herds  of  wild  cattle. 
The  well-being  of  the  young  settlement  was  largely 
due  to  the  wise  Governor  Hernan  Darias,  whose 
dealings  with  the  Indians  were  at  once  firm  and 
humane.  Under  him,  in  1620,  Buenos  Aires  was 
separated  from  Asuncion  and  became  a  separate 
governorship,  but  both  colonies  remained  under  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The  history  of  Spanish 
Argentina  is,  on  the  whole,  prosperous  and  un- 
eventful. In  those  days  colonies  were  looked  upon 
as  "  plantations "  existing  for  the  benefit  of  the 
mother  country,  and  all  writers  have  denounced 
the  illiberality  of  the  Spanish  economic  policy, 
which  ordered  Buenos  Aires  to  trade  with  Cadiz  by 
way  of  Peru  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  This 
illiberality,  however,  was  common  to  all  nations ; 
the  laws  were  easily  evaded,  and  a  brisk  contraband 


46         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

trade  grew  up  with  the  English  and  Dutch.  Out  of 
this  arose  quarrels  with  England,  and  these  (together 
with  Indian  wars  and  constant  hostility  from  the 
Portuguese,  both  on  the  Brazilian  border  and  at 
Nova  Colonia  in  Uruguay),  make  up  the  main 
disturbing  events  in  the  first  two  centuries  of 
Argentine  history.  The  disputes  with  England  came 
to  a  head  in  the  notorious  war  of  Jenkins's  Ear,  so 
unwillingly  begun  by  Walpole  in  1739.  The  result 
was  inconclusive,  but  it  illustrates  the  fierce  struggle 
for  markets  which  then,  as  now,  was  one  of  the 
chief  motive  powers  of  States.  The  Spanish  colonial 
system,  though  hard  to  alter,  was  beginning  to 
crumble,  and  in  1773  there  was  a  further  disintegrating 
stroke  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  who  had  long 
been  protectors  and  civilizers  of  the  Indians  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  Plate  District.  In  1776  the 
Spaniards  began  enlightened  reforms.  Buenos  Aires 
was  freed  from  servitude  to  Peru  and  placed  under 
a  separate  viceroy,  who  ruled  over  such  parts  of 
Argentina,  Bolivia,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  as  were 
then  accessible  to  the  Spaniards.  At  the  same  time 
free  trade  was  established  between  Buenos  Aires  and 
Spain.  But  these  changes  did  not  avert  the  coming 
storm. 

The  revolt  of  the  North  American  colonies  had 
caused  in  the  civilized  world  a  great  ferment,  which 
was  intensified  by  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  Rights  of  Man  began  to  make  head- 
way in  South  America.  That  it  would  bear  any 
immediate  fruit  in  Argentina  seemed  improbable,  but 
a  momentous  event — the  English  expedition — showed 
the  people  the  weakness  of  Spain,  and  gave  them  con- 
fidence in  their  own  strength.  As  Spain  was  in 
alliance  with  France,  the  British  Government  directed 
expeditions  against  the  Spanish  colonies  in  the  Plate 


ARGENTINA  47 

district,  and  Montevideo,  having  been  taken  and  lost  in 
1806,  was  captured  a  second  time  in  1807,  and  from 
this  base  the  pusillanimous  Whitelocke,  who  had 
arrived  at  the  head  of  a  fine  army,  began  operations 
against  Buenos  Aires.  The  troops  forced  their  way 
into  the  town,  but  met  with  a  severe  check  from  the 
Creoles,  who  fought  with  unexpected  skill  and 
determination  and  Whitelocke  made  a  most  dis- 
graceful capitulation,  by  which  he  agreed  to  evacuate 
both  Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo.  The  expedition 
retired  ignobly  from  the  Plate  River  on  September 
9,  1807,  and  Whitelocke,  it  is  some  satisfaction  to 
know,  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  cashiered.  The 
only  permanent  result  of  this  affair  was  that  it  opened 
the  eyes  of  British  merchants  to  the  enormous  value  of 
the  Argentine  market.  Within  less  than  two  years  the 
men  of  Buenos  Aires  learned  that  Spain  was  helpless, 
and  had  been  practically  annexed  by  France ;  they 
therefore  called  upon  the  Spanish  viceroy  to  form  a  Pro- 
visional Government,  which  was  done  on  May  25,  1810, 
and  this  is  held  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution. 
The  resistance  of  Spain,  comparatively  feeble  in  these 
parts,  was  shattered  by  Belgrano's  victory  at  Tucuman 
in  1811,  and  henceforth  Argentina  was  chiefly  engaged 
in  securing  the  independence  of  the  rest  of  South 
America  through  the  exploits  of  her  heroic  general,  San 
Martin,  and  in  suppressing  anarchy  at  home.  This  last 
was  by  far  the  longest  task.  In  1825  Argentina  stood 
forth  as  a  Republic  in  the  polity  of  nations,  having 
been  recognized  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  But  several  ferocious  tyrants  sprang  up  and 
made  the  constitution  a  dead  letter,  until  in  1835  the 
crafty  Rosas  established  absolute  dominion  and  put  all 
rivals  to  death.  Like  the  dictatorship  of  Francia,  the 
tyranny  of  Rosas  is  one  of  the  best-known  circum- 
tances  in  South  American  history,  but  the  Argentine 


48         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

was  a  baser  and  more  cruel  man  than  the  Paraguayan, 
and  his  fall  and  exile  in  1852  were  greeted  wi'.h 
universal  approval.  The  history  of  the  Republic  went 
on  unprosperously,  for  progress  was  retarded  by  the 
formidable  war  with  Paraguay  (see  pp.  250-1),  and  by 
quarrels  between  the  Portenos,  who  wished  the  Port 
(i.e.  Buenos  Aires)  to  be  the  head  of  a  strong 
centralized  Government,  and  their  rivals,  who  wished 
for  a  Confederation.  Eventually  the  Portenos  may  be 
said  to  have  triumphed,  for  Argentina  is  undoubtedly  a 
Federation,  and  the  President  at  Buenos  Aires  has 
tolerably  effective  powers  over  the  Provinces.  It  was 
about  the  year  1870  that  Argentina,  having  obtained 
peace  abroad  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  at  home,  began 
the  career  of  prosperity  which  is  the  most  remarkable 
phenomenon  in  modern  industrial  history,  and  has 
hitherto  had  no  bounds  put  upon  it,  except  lack  of 
population.  This  prosperity  led  to  over-speculation, 
and  the  well-known  financial  and  political  crisis  of 
1891,  but  there  was  a  rapid  recovery,  which,  however, 
appeared  likely  to  be  checked  by  the  prospect  of  a  war 
with  Chile  over  a  serious  boundary  dispute.  Both 
countries,  to  their  honour,  agreed  to  submit  the  matter 
to  the  arbitration  of  King  Edward  VII,  but  the  task  of 
delimiting  Argentine  Patagonia  from  Chile  was  very 
difficult,  and  several  times  the  disputants  seemed  to  be 
on  the  verge  of  war.  In  1902  the  dispute  was  happily 
settled,  and  its  settlement  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of 
General  Roca,  the  President,  who  helped  to  calm  the 
angry  passions  of  two  proud  nations.  In  1904  his 
term  of  office  came  to  an  end  and  Dr.  Manuel 
Quintana  took  his  place.  He  died  in  1906,  and  his 
place  was  taken  by  Vice- President  Senor  Alcorta.  At 
the  beginning  of  1908  there  were  disturbances,  accom- 
panied by  an  attempt  upon  the  life  of  President 
Alcorta,  but  they  did  not  lead  to  any  very  serious. 


ARGENTINA  49 

result.  Vague  rumours  of  impending  trouble  with 
Brazil,  based  on  the  increase  of  naval  armaments  by 
both  countries,  were  emphatically  denied,  and 
subsequent  events  seemed  to  show  that  they  had  no 
foundation.  In  1910  Dr.  Saenz  Pena  was  elected 
unopposed  to  the  Presidency,  and  in  the  same  year 
the  Centenary  was  celebrated  by  the  holding  of 
industrial  exhibitions  in  the  capital  and  by  the 
reception  of  foreign  delegates  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  These  celebrations  gave  occasion  to  reaffirm 
the  long-standing  friendship  between  Argentina  and 
Great  Britain,  but  they  were  somewhat  marred  by 
anarchist  demonstrations  and  threats  of  a  general 
strike,  which  caused  the  capital  to  be  placed  in  a  state 
of  siege.  As  has  been  well  pointed  out  by  Mr,  Stuart 
Pennington,  this  measure  is  not  a  proclamation  of 
martial  law,  but  corresponds  to  the  suspension  of 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland. 
The  vigorous  measures  of  the  Government  had  their 
proper  effect,  and  now  Argentina  is  not  only 
prosperous,  as  has  long  been  the  case,  but  also 
tranquil.  For  the  last  few  years  the  Republic  has 
had  no  history. 

THE  CONSTITUTION. 

It  is  Federal  in  type,  being  less  centralized  than  that 
of  Chile,  but  more  so  than  that  of  Brazil.  The 
President,  who  is  elected  for  six  years,  is  assisted  by 
eight  Secretaries  of  State.  The  National  Congress 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  30  members  and  a  House 
of  Deputies  of  120  members. 

BUENOS  AIRES 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— Buenos  Aires  is  a  great  shipping  centre. 
The  various  lines  and  their  rates  of  passage  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  Introduction.  These  are  the  Royal  Mail 

£ 


50         A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

Steam  Packet  Company  and  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  the  Lamport  and  Holt,  the  Houlder,  the  Nelson, 
the  Hamburg-American,  and  the  Royal  Holland.  Several 
Italian  and  French  companies  run  good  fast  steamers  from 
various  continental  ports,  and  there  is  through  communica- 
tion by  the  Lamport  and  Holt  Line  between  Buenos  Aires 
and  New  York.  Practically  all  these  lines  touch  at  the 
Brazilian  ports  and  most  at  Monte  Video.  Ships  belonging 
to  the  New  Zealand  Shipping  Company  call  here  on  their 
homeward  voyage.  The  Lloyd  Brazileiro  have  a  coastal 
service  from  Brazilian  ports  to  Buenos  Aires.  Vessels  of 
the  Royal  Mail  and  the  Pacific  Companies  and  also  of  the 
Lamport  and  Holt  proceed  round  the  Horn  to  Pacific  ports. 
There  is  a  good  service  of  steamers  up  the  Parana  River  ; 
the  Lloyd  Brazileiro  and  many  other  companies  dispatch 
steamers  to  Rosario,  Parana,  Corrientes,  Asuncion  (Para- 
guay), Corumba  (Brazil),  and  many  other  fluvial  ports.  The 
ships  come  up  to  the  quay. 

It  is  easy  to  land,  but  the  conveyance  of  luggage  to  the 
hotels  is  difficult  and  expensive,  and  the  cabs  are  indifferent. 

RAILWAYS — Some  description  has  already  been  given  of  the 
railways.  Unlike  every  other  capital  in  South  America, 
Buenos  Aires  is  the  heart  of  the  national  railway  system, 
and  is  quite  as  important  a  railway  centre  as  London.  In 
the  Paseo  de  Julio  is  the  Retiro,  the  terminus  of  the  Buenos 
Aires  and  Pacific  Railway.  This  is  the  point  of  departure 
for  Mendoza  and  Valparaiso.  The  journey  to  Mendoza 
takes  33!  hours  and  the  first-class  fare  is  £$  53.  This 
includes  a  sleeping-berth  ;  it  is  a  very  comfortable  journey. 
A  ticket  for  lunch,  dinner  and  early  coffee  on  the  train  may 
be  obtained  for  los.  6d.  This  station  (the  Retiro)  is  shared 
with  the  Central  Argentine  Railway,  which  is  the  line  for 
Rosario,  Cordoba,  and  Tucuman.  The  first-class  fare  to 
Tucuman  is  ^4  155.,  and  there  are  restaurants  and  sleeping 
cars.  The  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  has  its  terminal 
station  in  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  and  is  the  point 
of  departure  for  Mar  del  Plata  and  Bahia  Blanca.  To  Mar 
del  Plata  the  journey  takes  9  hours  and  the  first-class 
fare  is  £2  125.  6d.  To  Bahia  Blanca  the  journey  takes 
about  14  hours  and  the  price  of  a  first-class  ticket  is 
£2  1 8s.  6d.  The  trains  are  provided  with  restaurants 
and  sleeping-berths. 

HOTELS — Much  has  been   written  about  the   hotels  of   Buenos 


ARGENTINA  51 

Aires,  and  much  might  be  said  both  for  and  against  them. 
The  following  are  among  the  principal  :  The  Plaza,  Plaza 
San  Martin  ;  the  Royal,  Calle  Corrientes,  780 ;  the  Palace, 
Calle  25  de  Mayo,  221  ;  the  Majestic,  Avenida  de  Mayo  ;  the 
Grand,  Calle  Florida,  25.  These  are  extremely  expensive 
hotels,  ranging  from  about  £i  a  day  up  to  a  very  large 
amount,  and  they  are  very  sumptuous.  The  Royal  is  much 
frequented  by  diplomatists.  The  Grand,  in  the  fashionable 
Calle  Florida,  is  perhaps  the  most  expensive.  The  Phcenix, 
Calle  San  Martin,  780,  will  probably  suit  English  visitors 
best.  The  charge  is  175.  6d.  a  day,  and  the  cuisine  and 
accommodation  are  good ;  it  is  under  English  management. 
The  Hotel  Provence,  much  frequented  by  English,  is 
moderate  in  its  charges — about  los.  6d.  a  day  ;  it  is  com- 
fortable and  old-fashioned.  The  Londres  and  the  Mayo 
are  finely  situated  in  the  Plaza  de  Mayo.  Rooms  can  be 
taken  with  or  without  board,  at  moderate  prices,  and  fine 
restaurants  are  attached.  The  proprietors  of  each  are 
Italians. 

Among  the  numerous  restaurants  may  be  mentioned  the 
Sportsman,  the  Charpentier,  the  Royal  Kellar,  the  Bal- 
domeros,  the  Harguindequey,  and  the  Brunswick  (charges 
moderate). 

BRITISH  CONSUL— British  Minister,  Sir  Reginald  T.  Tower. 
Naval  Attache,  Captain  H.  C.  Grant. 
Military  Attache,  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  E.  Grogan. 
First  Secretary,  H.  W.  Gaisford. 
Consul-General,  H.  G.  A.  Mackie. 
Vice-Consuls,  W.  G.  C.  Gardner,  P.  E.  Davies,  C.  F.  A. 

Bristow. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  Anglo-South  American  Bank, 
British  Bank  of  South  America,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank, 
Banco  Espanol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Banco  de  la  Provincia  de 
Buenos  Aires. 

NEWSPAPERS — Buenos  Aires  is  celebrated  for  its  excellent 
journalism.  Some  400  journals  of  all  descriptions  and 
languages  are  published  in  the  city.  The  two  great  morning 
newspapers,  La  Nation  and  La  Prensa,  are  up  to  the  best 
European  standard,  while  La  Argentina  (circulation  about 
200,000)  is  a  most  enterprising  paper.  Other  morning 
papers  are  El  Pats,  El  Tiempo,  El  Diario  de  Comercio,  and 
El  Correo  Espanol.  Evening  journals  are  La  Razon  and  El 
Diario.  There  are  two  excellent  English  dailies,  the 


52         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Standard  and  the  Buenos  Aires  Herald,  while  French 
journalism  is  represented  by  Le  Courier  de  La  Plata,  German 
by  Deutsche  la  Plata  Zeitung  and  Argentenisches  Tageblatt, 
and  Italian  by  La  Patria  Degli  Italiani.  The  English  weekly, 
the  Review  of  London  and  River  Plate,  is  well  known,  as  also 
is  Caras  y  Caretas,  a  cleverly  illustrated  weekly  publication. 
The  Revista  de  Economica  y  Finanzas  comes  out  every  fort- 
night. M.  Walle x  says  of  La  Nacion  and  La  Prensa : 
"  These  are  the  two  giants  of  South  American  journalism, 
and  they  have  no  reason  to  envy  English  or  American 
newspapers.  In  these  journals  we  find  fewer  trivial  scraps 
of  news  and  less  to  stir  up  popular  passion  than  in  many  of 
our  own  papers,  and  we  are  kept  in  perfect  touch  with  the 
life  and  general  affairs  of  the  country."  Argentina  has 
fortunately  taken  France  instead  of  the  United  States  as  its 
model  in  journalism,  and  the  articles,  reviews  and  general 
contributions  have  a  real  literary  touch,  and  the  service 
of  news  is  superior  to  that  of  Parisian  journals.  La  Nacion 
belongs  to  the  family  of  the  famous  Bartholome  Mitre  ;  it  is 
a  high-class  Liberal  paper.  The  magnificent  offices  of  La 
Prensa  in  the  Avenida  de  Mayo  are  said  to  be  the  finest  in 
the  world.  The  Standard  was  founded  by  Mulhall,  a 
member  of  one  of  the  best-known  Anglo-Argentine  families. 
ENGLISH  CHURCH — Buenos  Aires  has  an  old-established  church, 
dedicated  to  St.  John. 

Buenos  Aires,  the  second  Latin  city  in  the  world, 
has  a  population  which  is  estimated  at  1,439,528.  The 
traveller  may  be  disappointed  with  the  approach  up 
the  great  Plate  estuary,  for  the  coast  is  almost  dead 
level  with  the  water  and  no  imposing  view  can  be 
obtained  of  the  "  City  of  Good  Air,"  but  on  landing 
he  will  be  amazed  by  its  size  and  general  magnificence. 
The  best  time  to  visit  Buenos  Aires  is  either  in  March 
or  October,  but  the  climate  is  tolerably  good  all  the 
year  round,  the  hottest  weather  occurring  about 
Christmas-time.  The  temperature  hardly  ever  falls 
below  freezing-point,  and  probably  at  no  time  more 
than  two  degrees.  The  mean  temperature  is  about 
1  L' Argentine  telle  qu'elle  est,  p.  126. 


ARGENTINA  53 

60°  Fahr. ;  the  maximum  103°.  Buenos  Aires  is 
described  by  its  residents  as  "  undoubtedly  one  of 
the  healthiest  cities  in  the  world."  The  death-rate 
per  1,000  is  15-2  and  the  birth-rate  34*31. 

Like  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires  has  been  trans- 
formed in  modern  times.  Not  many  years  ago  the 
buildings  were  low  and  in  the  Spanish  style,  but, 
beginning  with  the  era  of  feverish  prosperity  before 
1891,  the  citizens  pulled  down  the  old  houses  and  set 
up  tall  erections  in  various  styles  of  architecture. 
Unfortunately,  they  were  not  able  to  plan  their  town 
on  the  spacious  scale  of  the  Brazilian  capital,  and,  in 
fact,  they  were  obliged  to  keep  almost  exactly  to 
the  old  lines,  owing  to  the  enormous  cost  of  land. 
Undoubtedly  the  streets  are  too  narrow  for  the  traffic 
and  obscure  the  effect  of  the  sumptuous  buildings, 
which  rise  up  luxuriantly  in  the  Calle  Florida  and 
other  fashionable  parts  ;  the  only  broad  street  in  this 
district  is  the  Avenida  de  Mayo,  which  in  recent  years 
was  driven  through  the  centre  at  great  cost.  It  runs 
from  the  Plaza  de  Mayo  in  the  east,  near  the  dockyards, 
until  it  meets,  in  the  west,  the  street  of  Entre  Rios  at 
right  angles.  This  street  is  more  than  a  mile  in  length 
and  about  36  feet  broad  ;  it  is  fringed  by  magnificent 
shops,  hotels,  clubs,  and  offices,  and  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  modern  thoroughfares  in  the  world.  It  is 
easy  to  find  one's  way  about  Buenos  Aires,  as  far  as  the 
central  parts  are  concerned,  for  the  town  is  laid  out  on 
the  Spanish  plan  with  the  streets  at  right  angles  ;  if  the 
pedestrian  is  walking  from  east  to  west,  he  is  certain 
sooner  or  later  to  pass  every  street  that  runs  north  and 
south.  The  principal  east  and  west  streets  are  Tucu- 
man,  Lavalle,  Corrientes,  Cuyo,  Cangallo,  Bartolome 
Mitre,  Rivadavia,  Avenida  de  Mayo,  Victoria.  These 
are  crossed  by  25  de  Mayo,  Reconquista,  San  Martin, 
Florida,  Maipu,  Esmeralda,  Suipachu,  Pellegrini, 


54         A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

Cerrito.  This  parallelogram,  which  embraces  about 
a  square  mile,  includes  practically  all  the  town  part  of 
Buenos  Aires  which  he  need  see.  The  more  distant 
points  will  form  objects  of  separate  excursions.  This 
congested  spot  is  Buenos  Aires ;  the  impression 
invariably  given  is  one  of  bustle,  wealth,  and  luxury. 
Those  who  have  made  money  love  to  spend  it  royally, 
and  one  of  the  best  described  South  American  scenes 
is  the  Avenida  Alvear,  leading  to  the  park  at  Palermo, 
along  which  pour  magnificent  equipages  carrying  ladies 
whose  toilets  show  that  expense  is  no  consideration. 
The  chief  shopping  street  is  the  Calle  Florida,  whose 
fine  buildings  are  obscured  by  the  narrowness  of  the 
thoroughfare.  In  Buenos  Aires  the  objects  of  interest 
are  so  numerous  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  where  to 
begin  with  their  description.  A  beginning  may  be 
made  with  the  parks  and  squares.  A  beautiful  feature 
of  Buenos  Aires  is  the  number  of  squares  or  plazas, 
but  unfortunately  most  of  them  are  situated  at  some 
distance  from  the  centre.  Noteworthy  are  the  Plaza 
de  Mayo,  which  contains  the  Government  Palace,  the 
Municipal  Palace,  and  the  Cathedral ;  the  Plaza  Lavalle, 
a  large  square  containing  a  statue  of  General  Lavalle  ; 
the  Plaza  San  Martin  at  the  termination  of  the  street  of 
that  name  and  the  Calle  Florida,  which  has  a  statue  of 
the  great  Argentine  general  ;  the  Plaza  de  Libertad, 
the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  and  many  others.  A 
most  charming  park  is  3  de  Febrero  at  Palermo,  which 
is  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  of  South  America.  Adjoining 
it  is  the  Zoological  Garden,  which  contains  a  very  large 
and  varied  collection  of  animals.  Still  farther  away  is 
the  fine  park,  the  9  de  Julio,  which  is  modelled  upon 
the  Champs-Elysees.  The  two  principal  race-courses 
are  at  Palermo  and  Belgrano.  Here  valuable  thorough- 
breds contend  for  rich  prizes  ;  the  wealthy  Argentines 
have  spared  no  trouble  or  expense  in  improving  their 


ARGENTINA  55 

horse-flesh  and  have  imported  many  of  the  best  English 
stallions.  The  racing  season  is  from  March  to 
December.  The  entrance  to  the  grand  stand  is 
i2s.  6d.  At  Palermo  and  at  the  numerous  grounds 
in  the  outskirts  of  the  city  polo,  football,  cricket,  golf, 
lawn-tennis,  and  many  other  games  and  sports  are 
pursued  vigorously,  the  Argentine  having  taken  kindly 
to  them,  largely  under  English  tuition,  for  the  English 
have,  ever  since  Whitelocke's  expedition,  been  busy  in 
Argentina  both  in  business  and  sport.  The  English 
visitor  will  find  the  social  life  of  Buenos  Aires  extremely 
pleasant  ;  there  are  two  excellent  clubs  in  the  Calle 
Bartolome  Mitre— the  English  Club  and  the  Club  de 
Residentes  Estranjeros.  The  French  Club  is  in  Calle 
Florida,  112,  the  German  in  Calle  Cordoba,  731.  In 
the  Calle  Cangallo  is  the  English  Literary  Society, 
with  a  good  library.  The  chief  Argentine  club  is  the 
Jockey  Club  in  the  Calle  Florida,  probably  the  most 
sumptuous  club  in  the  world ;  the  entrance  fee  is 
enormously  high.  There  are  many  fine  public  build- 
ings in  Buenos  Aires.  One  of  the  most  prominent  is 
the  Palace  of  Government  (Casa  Rosada),  in  the  Plaza 
de  Mayo,  which  stands  on  the  site  of  the  old  fort 
erected  by  Juan  de  Garay  in  1590.  The  present  edifice, 
a  huge  parallelogram  about  400  feet  long  and  250  deep, 
was  built  in  1894.  Although  the  two  wings  are  not 
in  architectural  harmony,  the  building  has  an  imposing 
effect.  Besides  the  Presidential  offices,  here  are  lodged 
those  of  the  Foreign  Minister,  the  Minister  of  War  and 
several  others.  At  the  west  end  of  the  Avenida  de 
Mayo  is  the  Congress  Hall,  a  building  with  a  huge 
dome,  whose  weight  is  said  to  be  30,000  tons.  The 
Hall  is  in  the  Greco-Roman  style  and  cost  nearly  two 
millions  sterling,  but  in  spite  of  its  cost  and  size,  the 
architecture  has  been  severely  criticized.  The  National 
Library,  Calle  Mejico,  560,  possesses  180,000  volumes 


56         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  the  Library  of  General  Mitre  is  in  the  Calle  San 
Martin.  The  Bolsa  (Exchange)  is  a  fine  building. 
The  Cathedral,  in  the  Plaza  de  Mayo,  with  a  handsome 
fa£ade  and  large  dome,  was  built  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  contains  a  fine  monument  to  General  San 
Martin.  In  spite  of  the  vast  sums  which  have  been 
spent  upon  it,  Buenos  Aires  cannot  be  called  a  satis- 
factory town,  for  its  streets  are  too  narrow  to  carry  its 
traffic.  The  Argentine  Baedeker  asks :  "  When  shall  we 
have  sideways  7  yards  broad,  like  the  two  rides  of 
Broadway,  where  the  fashionable  people  expatiate,  or 
ten  or  twelve,  like  the  boulevards  of  Paris,  which  allow 
the  stranger  space  to  drink  his  coffee  and  watch  the 
human  flood  pass  by,  talking,  gesticulating,  moving  to 
and  fro  at  ease  ?  "  One  great  advantage  is  possessed 
by  Buenos  Aires  in  its  numerous,  rapid  and  cheap 
tramways,  which  enable  the  traveller  to  visit  every  part 
of  the  city. 

There  are  many  theatres,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  Opera,  Calle  Corrientes,  860,  which  is 
open  from  May  to  August  and  is  devoted  chiefly  to 
Italian  opera ;  the  Colon,  in  the  Plaza  Lavalle,  which 
cost  about  ^350,000  and  is  the  finest  theatre  in  Latin 
America — a  distinction  possessed  by  several  other  South 
American  towns  ;  it  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most 
graceful  buildings  in  the  city,  being  partly  Ionic  and 
partly  Corinthian  ;  it  will  hold  3,500  people — the  San 
Martin,  Calle  Esmeralda,  257,  which  deals  in  comedy 
and  variety  shows  ;  the  Odeon  in  the  same  street  is  a 
comedy  theatre  ;  the  Victoria  in  the  street  of  the  same 
name  plays  vaudeville  ;  the  National  Theatre,  Calle 
Corrientes,  950,  intended  for  native  plays  ;  the  New,  a 
finely  appointed  building  in  the  Avenida  de  Mayo ;  and 
the  Argentine,  Calle  Bartolome  Mitre,  1444,  which  pro- 
duces French  and  Italian  plays.  Ara$.ng  music-halls 
may  be  mentioned  the  Casino,  Calle  Maipu,  336,  the 


ARGENTINA  57 

Royal,  Calle  Corrientes,  829,  and  La  Scala  ;  but  these 
places  of  entertainment  have  little  that  deserves 
recommendation. 

There  is  a  University  at  Buenos  Aires  with  over 
4,000  students.  Argentina  is  less  distinguished  for 
culture  than  many  of  her  smaller  neighbours  who 
cannot  compare  with  her  in  wealth  and  importance. 
The  energy  of  the  country  is  chiefly  absorbed  in 
money-making,  and  there  is  little  time  for  the 
humanities.  The  attitude  is  exemplified  by  the  fol- 
lowing anecdote.  An  English  gentleman  said  some- 
thing to  an  Argentine  man  of  business  about  poetry. 

"  You  talk  of  poetry/'  he   replied.     "  Well,  Mr. , 

I  never  knew  any  one  who  cared  for  poetry  make  any 
money  on  the  Bolsa."  On  the  practical  side  there 
have  been  some  noteworthy  achievements.  Calvo 
(d.  1906)  is  the  author  of  Derecho  International,  a 
work  of  the  highest  authority  and  of  world-wide  fame. 
Dr.  Luis  Maria  Drago  also  has  enriched  International 
Law  both  in  terminology  and  practice.  The  Drago 
Doctrine  is  thus  explained  in  the  Annual  Register  for 
1907  :  "  The  Convention  (II)  embodying,  in  a  modified 
form,  the  '  Drago  doctrine '  that  force  must  not  be 
used  for  the  recovery  of  ordinary  public  debts 
originating  in  contracts,  was  adopted  in  the  ninth 
plenary  sitting  of  the  Conference  (October  i6th)  by 
thirty-nine  votes  with  five  abstentions  (among  them 
Venezuela).  The  Convention,  which  was  described  as 
one  of  the  few  successes  of  the  Conference,  was  not  to 
apply  if  the  debtor  State  refused  or  ignored  an  offer 
of  arbitration,  obstructed  the  process,  or  repudiated 
the  decision ;  and  on  these  points  certain  South 
American  States  made  reservations."  The  Annual 
Register  continues  :  "  This  doctrine  was  put  forward 
in  a  diplomatic  note  (December  29,  1902)  during  the 
Venezuela  crisis  by  Dr.  Luis  Maria  Drago,  then 


58         A   GUIDE    TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Argentine  Foreign  Minister,  now  a  delegate  to  the 
Conference.  He  there  maintained  that  no  European 
State  was  entitled  to  intervene  by  force  in  the  affairs 
of  an  American  nation,  still  less  to  occupy  its  territory, 
in  order  to  recover  a  debt  due  from  its  Government  to 
the  subjects  of  the  intervening  State,  such  an  inter- 
vention being  an  infringement  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  debtor  State  and  of  the  principle  of  the  equality  of 
sovereign  States.  Sefior  Calvo,  an  eminent  Argentine 
jurist,  had  deprecated  such  intervention  in  principle, 
without  absolutely  excluding  it,  and  had  approached, 
but  not  precisely  asserted,  the  Drago  doctrine."  The 
Drago  doctrine  is  possibly  more  satisfactory  to  the 
smaller  Latin  American  States  than  to  their  creditors. 

The  novel  has  been  cultivated  with  some  success  by 
Argentine  writers.  In  1851  a  good  romance  named 
Amalia  was  published  by  Jose  Marmol,  a  writer  who 
took  the  elder  Dumas  as  his  model.  In  1888  there 
appeared  Leon  Saldivar,  by  Carlos  Maria  Ocantos, 
which  is  much  admired  for  its  powerful  studies  of  life 
in  Buenos  Aires.  The  most  popular  Argentine  novel, 
which  is  generally  considered  one  of  the  best  ever 
written  by  a  South  American  author,  is  La  Gloria  de 
Don  Ramiro,  which  was  published  in  Madrid  in  1908 
by  Senor  Enrique  Larreta.  It  is  an  historical  romance 
dealing  with  the  times  of  Philip  II  of  Spain.  The 
best  of  all  South  American  histories  in  the  Spanish 
language,  Ensayo  de  la  Historia  Civil  del  Paraguay, 
Buenos  Aires  y  Tucuman,  was  by  the  Argentine  Dean 
Funes,  who  lived  through  the  revolutionary  wars ;  it 
was  published  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1816-17.  General 
Bartolome  Mitre  wrote  valuable  Lives  of  Belgrano 
and  San  Martin. 

During  Spanish  times  the  poetry  produced  in  the 
Plate  district  was  not  of  much  importance,  but  the 
revolution  inspired  many  poets,  and  the  Lira  Argentina 


ARGENTINA  59 

is  a  mine  of  patriotic  verse.  However,  in  this 
favourite  Latin  American  field,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  Argentine  harvest  is  scanty.  Esteban  Eche- 
verria,  a  notable  poet,  sang  in  the  early  years  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  and  wrote  vigorous  lyrics,  but  he 
was  as  much  a  social  reformer  and  politician  as  a 
poet,  and  his  verse  took  a  gloomy  cast  from  his 
surroundings,  which  were  a  living  example  of  the 
failure  of  democratic  aspirations.  He  said,  "  Thou 
shalt  suffer  the  martyrdom  that,  for  him  who  is  born 
a  poet,  is  reserved  by  impious  fate."  Juan  Maria 
Gutierrez  (1809-78)  is  considered  the  most  complete 
man  of  letters  produced  by  Argentina,  for  the  pursuit 
is  usually  ancillary  to  politics  or  diplomacy.  Unlike, 
again,  the  generality  of  Spanish-American  poets,  he  is 
an  open-air  writer;  his  ode,  Amor  del  Desierto,  is  an 
example.  Jose  Marmol,  the  novelist,  was  also  a 
powerful  poet  and  wrote  vehemently  against  the  hated 
tyrant  Rosas. 

There  are  now,  besides  the  extremely  able  journalists 
of  Buenos  Aires,  a  number  of  accomplished  literary 
critics,  but  Buenos  Aires  is  not,  like  Rio  de  Janeiro  or 
Bogota,  a  centre  of  culture,  and  it  is  significant  that 
most  of  the  literary  men  contrive  to  reside  abroad, 
and  even,  in  many  cases,  publish  their  works  in 
Europe. 

Buenos  Aires,  with  its  excellent  railways,  is  the  best 
centre  in  South  America  for  excursions,  and  the 
traveller  will  probably  make  it  his  headquarters  for  a 
considerable  time.  The  nearest  place  of  interest  is 
La  Plata. 

LA  PLATA 

RAILWAYS — The  town  is  reached  by  the  Buenos  Aires  Great 
Southern  Railway  ;  there  is  a  choice  of  two  routes  :  (i)  from 
the  Casa  Amarilla,  (2)  from  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion. 


60         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

By  the  former  route  Quilmes  (Hotel  del  Progreso)  is  passed — 

a  small  manufacturing  town  of  5,000  inhabitants,  situated 

12  miles  from  the  capital.     La  Plata  itself  is  only  39  miles 

from  Buenos  Aires. 
HOTELS — Hotel   Mainini,   Calle   7  and   $o,   about   15$.   a    day  ; 

Hotel    Comercio,    Calle    9    and     51,     the     same     charge. 

Restaurants  are  the  Navarro  and  the  Sportsman. 
BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  S.  H.  Puleston. 
BANKS — Banco  Espanol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
NEWSPAPERS— El  Dia,   Buenos  Aires,   El  Argentina,   El  Pueblo, 

La  Provincia,  Los   Debates,    El  Mercurio,   La   Reforma,    La 

Verdad. 

La  Plata,  with  106,382  inhabitants,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  and  something  of  a 
white  elephant  among  cities.  It  was  founded  in  1882 
and  laid  out  on  a  magnificent  scale,  on  the  familiar 
rectangular  plan,  which  is  modified  by  diagonal 
avenues.  The  disagreeable  North  American  plan  is 
followed  of  giving  numbers  instead  of  names  to 
the  streets.  There  is  a  splendid  park,  planted  with 
tall  eucalyptus-trees.  Noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
Government  Palace,  the  University,  and  the  Municipal 
Buildings.  There  is  a  race-course  and  three  theatres — 
Olimpo,  Argentine,  and  Del  Lago.  But  with  all  its 
splendours  La  Plata  is  a  lifeless  city,  and  all  visitors 
comment  upon  its  want  of  animation ;  it  is  over- 
shadowed by  its  great  neighbour,  Buenos  Aires. 

The  great  excellence  of  La  Plata  is  its  Museum, 
standing  in  the  Park,  which  was  founded  by  F.  P. 
Moreno,  the  explorer  and  scientist,  in  1884.  The 
architecture  is  ingeniously  symbolistic  ;  there  are 
fourteen  salons  and  the  anthropological  and  palaeonto- 
logical  collections  are  among  the  best  extant.  There 
is  a  National  University,  to  which  is  attached  the 
Astronomical  Observatory.  From  the  port  of  La 
Plata,  which  is  Ensenada,  a  great  quantity  of  frozen 
meat  is  shipped. 


ARGENTINA  61 

MAR   DEL   PLATA 

RAILWAYS — The  distance  from  the  capital  is  240  miles,  and  the 
trains  of  the  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  Railway  perform 
the  journey  in  9^  hours.  The  station  is  in  the  Plaza  de  la 
Constitucion.  The  first-class  fare  is  £2  I2S.  6d.  A  seat  in 
the  Pullman  car  is  extra.  Meals  are  served  on  the  train. 

HOTELS — The  Bristol,  a  sumptuous  hotel,  from  305.  a  day. 
Victoria,  Royal,  Comfortable,  Carmen,  Progreso,  La  Perla  ; 
these  are  good  hotels  and  more  economical,  charging  about 
i8s.  a  day.  The  Hotel  Universal  charges  about  135.  a  day  ; 
it  has  a  good  name.  There  are  a  number  of  second-class 
hotels,  including  the  Sportsman,  the  Frascati,  and  the 
Continental,  which  charge  about  95.  a  day.  A  restaurant  is 
attached  to  the  Hotel  Bristol,  and  there  is  an  excellent 
restaurant,  Del  Capitan.  The  usual  price  of  a  dinner  is  55. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Progreso,  La  Razon,  El  Orden,  La  Tribuna, 
La  Capital  (weekly). 

Mar  del  Plata,  a  fashionable  seaside  and  bathing 
resort  with  a  population  of  15,000,  which  is  trebled  by 
visitors  during  the  season,  was  founded  in  1879. 
Besides  its  bathing  attractions,  which  are  on  an 
elaborate  scale,  and  the  other  amusements  common 
to  seaside  resorts,  Mar  del  Plata  is  well  known  for  golf 
and  pigeon-shooting.  It  is,  however,  so  like  other 
places  of  the  same  kind  that  a  detailed  description  is 
not  necessary. 

BAHIA  BLANCA 

RAILWAYS— Bahia  Blanca  is  408  miles  from  the  capital  and  the 
journey  takes  about  16  hours ;  there  is  a  choice  of  several 
routes  by  the  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  Railway  (Plaza 
de  la  Constitucion).  Meals  are  served  on  the  train.  The 
single  first-class  fare  is  about  £2. 

HOTELS — Sud  Americano,  Avenida  Colon,  122,  from  135.  a  day ; 
Royal,  Calle  Brown,  same  price.  Also  Hotel  de  Londres, 
Calle  O'Higgins,  with  good  cooking ;  Las  Nuevas  Flores, 
Calle  Chiclana;  La  Vasconia,  Avenida  Colon.  Among  the 
restaurants  may  be  mentioned  the  Jockey  Club,  Calle 


62         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

O'Higgins  ;  El  Espanol,  Calle  Alsina,  166  ;  Universal,  Calle 

O'Higgins. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Vice-Consul,  C.  C.  dimming. 
BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  Anglo-South  American,  Banco 

Espanol  de  la  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
NEWSPAPERS — La  Nueva  Provincia,  El  Comercio. 

Bahia  Blanca,  with  a  population  of  72,706,  is  a  very 
modern  town,  having  been  founded  in  1828  as  an  out- 
post against  the  Indians.  A  few  years  later  Darwin 
says  :  "  Bahia  Blanca  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of  a 
village.  A  few  houses  and  the  barracks  for  the  troops 
are  enclosed  by  a  deep  ditch  and  fortified  wall."  In 
those  days  it  was  engaged  in  constant  wars  with  the 
Indians,  who  were  ruthlessly  exterminated.  No  his- 
torian, by  the  way,  ever  thinks  of  comparing  the 
treatment  of  the  Indians  by  Royalist  Spain  with  that 
meted  out  to  them  by  Republican  South  America. 
The  Spanish  Governor  had  to  swear  an  oath  to 
protect  the  Indians,  and  this  he  did  unless  prevented 
by  the  greed  of  private  exploiters.  Nor  is  it  the  custom 
now,  as  it  was  in  Spanish  days,  to  send  missionaries  to 
devote  their  lives  to  civilizing  the  Indians  ;  at  least, 
such  missionaries  as  are  at  work  do  not  come  from  the 
South  American  Republics.  Even  when  the  warlike 
Indians  had  been  exterminated,  the  remote  situation 
prevented  expansion,  and  in  1880  the  population  was 
only  2,000.  Bahia  Blanca  received  a  great  access  of 
importance  when  the  Government  began  to  build 
Puerto  Militar,  at  a  distance  of  20  miles,  which  is  by 
far  the  greatest  naval  port  of  the  Republic.  Mean- 
while the  town  was  rapidly  becoming  noted  for  the 
exportation  of  wheat ;  its  commercial  prosperity  was 
created  by  the  five  railways  which  give  it  access  to 
every  part  of  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires.  There  is 
a  good  service  of  electric  tramcars,  which  belong  to  the 
two  railway  companies.  The  lighting  is  chiefly  by 


ARGENTINA  63 

electricity,  but  an  English  company  supplies  gas. 
The  Great  Southern  Railway  has  a  harbour  at 
Ingeniero  White,  4^  miles  from  Bahia  Blanca,  which 
dates  from  1885.  Here  is  accommodation  for  the 
largest  ships  and  two  huge  grain  elevators.  Port 
Galvan  is  a  similar  harbour  belonging  to  the  Buenos 
Aires  and  Pacific  Railway.  At  Puerto  Militar  great 
harbour  works  are  being  carried  out  for  the  Govern- 
ment by  a  German  firm  at  a  cost  of  .£1,340,000.  The 
Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  and  the  Mihanovich 
and  other  coasting  lines  frequently  call  at  Bahia 
Blanca.  The  following  figures  show  the  importance 
of  the  shipping  : — 

1912 

Vessels  Tonnage 

British  vessels      343  862,305 

Others         64  167,280 

Total       407  1,029,585 

There  were  also  12  sailing  vessels  with  a  tonnage  of 
14,446.  A  year  or  two  ago  the  prosperity  of  Bahia 
Blanca  suffered  seriously  from  poor  harvests,  but  in 
1912  the  exports  beat  all  records,  as  the  following 
figures  show  : — 

Cereals  Wool 

Tons  Tons 

1907    865,400         84,100 

1908    1,215,900         85,170 

1909    970,000         80,400 

1910    820,900         67,300 

1911    504,000         65,000 

1912       1,759,200  93,800 

Bahia  Blanca  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  rising 
ports  in  the  world,  and  its  population  has  trebled 
within  a  very  few  years. 


64         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

ROSARIO 

RAILWAYS — Rosario  is  rather  more  than  180  miles  from  Buenos 
Aires,  and  the  journey  takes  about  6  hours.  It  can  be 
made  most  comfortably  in  the  Central  Argentine  Railway ; 
meals  are  served  on  the  train  and  there  are  good  sleeping 
berths.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  Buenos  Aires  and 
Rosario  Railway,  whose  trains  also  start  from  the  Retiro. 
The  train  passes  over  flat  country  through  great  fields  of 
maize  and  rich  pastures  grazed  by  fat  stock,  and  at  times 
glimpses  are  caught  of  the  majestic  Parana.  Rosario  can,  of 
course,  be  reached  also  by  steamboat,  and  a  large  number  of 
cargo  vessels  sail  from  England  direct  to  this  port. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Savoy,  a  first-class  and  well-appointed  house  ; 
the  price  of  a  room  is  from  45.  to  ios.,  and  the  pension 
terms  vary  from  175.  6d.  to  255,  a  day,  according  to 
the  position  of  the  rooms.  Britannia,  a  comfortable  hotel 
kept  by  a  Canadian  family  ;  the  charges  are  ios.  6d.  a  day. 
Others  are  the  Grand  Hotel  Central,  the  Royal,  the  Universal, 
the  Frascati,  the  Italia.  These  are  fairly  comfortable  places  ; 
it  is  the  custom  in  Rosario  to  serve  the  wine  of  the  country 
free  at  meals.  There  are  several  restaurants. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  S.  S.  Dickson.  Vice-Consul,  A.  S. 
Nolan. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  London  and  Brazil,  British 
Bank  of  South  America,  Rio  Espanol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

NEWSPAPERS — The  chief  morning  newspaper  is  La  Capital, 
which  was  in  existence  in  1868,  the  chief  evening  El 
Messajero. 

ENGLISH  CHURCH — The  English  Church  of  St.  Bartholomew  is 
in  the  Calle  Paraguay. 

Rosario,  which  has  213,000  inhabitants,  is  the  second 
city  in  Argentina,  and  is  even  more  modern  than 
Bahia  Blanca,  having  been  an  insignificant  village  less 
than  seventy  years  ago.  In  1868  Burton  says  :  "The 
main  interest  of  the  settlement  is  its  prodigious  growth. 
In  1850  it  was  a  miserable  hamlet  of  mud  huts, 
sheltering  600  souls ;  in  1852  it  numbered  1,500  to 
2,000 ;  in  1855  it  had  6,000;  in  1857,  12,000.  The 
census  of  1858  gave  it  13,826,  and  now  its  population 


ARGENTINA  65 

cannot  fall  short  of  25,000."  He  gives  a  most  enter- 
taining account  of  the  diversions  of  Rosario,  which 
principally  consisted  in  baiting  bulls,  donkeys, 
monkeys,  and  other  animals.1  Rosario  owes  its 
sudden  leap  into  prosperity  to  the  downfall  of  the 
tyrant  Rosas,  who  had  imitated  the  policy  of  Francia 
in  trying  to  isolate  his  subjects  from  the  world.  As 
the  industries  and  commerce  of  Argentina  expanded, 
Rosario  became  one  of  the  chief  ports,  and  immense 
quantities  of  wheat,  maize  and  linseed  are  shipped. 

The  temperature  varies  greatly  and  changes  are 
sudden,  making  the  climate  dangerous  to  those  of  deli- 
cate constitution.  The  temperature  in  January  runs 
from  86°  to  98°  Fahr.,  in  June  from  48°  to  68°.  The 
death-rate  is  about  30,  the  birth-rate  35  per  thousand. 
The  best  time  for  a  visit  is  from  March  to  May,  or 
from  September  to  October.  It  is  during  these  months 
that  the  climate  and  health  of  Rosario  are  usually  at 
their  best. 

Rosario  is  a  handsome  town,  with  streets  wider  than 
are  to  be  found  in  Buenos  Aires  ;  the  Calle  Cordoba 
is  perhaps  the  best.  The  chief  open  space  is  the  Pare 
Independencia,  towards  the  south  of  the  town,  with  a 
large  artificial  lake  ;  this  pleasure-ground  has  been 
carefully  planted  with  rare  shrubs,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  in  South  America  ;  here  are  a  race-course  and  a 
flying-ground.  The  town  is  laid  out  with  the  utmost 
Spanish  regularity,  and  the  busiest  part  is  where  the 
parallel  streets  of  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe,  San  Lorenzo,  and 
Urquiza  intersect  the  parallel  Maipu,  San  Martin,  and 
Libertad.  There  are  several  splendid  boulevards — the 
Orono,  the  Pellegrini,  and  the  Wheelwright.  There  is  a 
first-rate  service  of  electric  tramcars.  Theatres  are  the 
Olimpa  and  La  Comedia  in  the  Calle  General  Mitre  and 
the  Comic  in  the  Calle  Cordoba.  It  is  pleasant  to  notice 
*  Battlefields,  p.  236. 


66         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

that  Dean  Funes,  the  historian,  is  commemorated  by 
the  name  of  a  street.  The  well-stocked  Zoological 
Gardens  should  be  visited.  The  Palace  of  Justice  is 
an  immensely  large  building,  with  a  tall  tower,  and  the 
Bolsa  and  many  of  the  commercial  buildings  are  hand- 
some. Rosario  is  well  supplied  with  educational 
establishments. 

The  situation  is  on  a  high  bank,  which  affords  a 
fine  view  of  the  Parana,  which  is  here  20  miles 
wide,  while  it  screens  the  town  from  the  river.1  Two 
places  are  well  worth  a  visit — the  wharfs,  where 
immense  sums  have  been,  and  are  being,  spent  on 
improving  the  berthing  accommodation,  including 
.£200,000  on  a  grain  elevator,  and  the  workshop  of  the 
Central  Argentine  Railway,  where  carriages  are  made 
and  locomotives  repaired.  It  is  curious  to  think  that 
Asuncion  had  a  railway  before  Rosario.  There  are 
many  English  inhabitants  and  a  pleasant  club. 
Rosario's  grain  traffic,  as  already  stated,  is  enormous, 
but  it  is  also  a  considerable  manufacturing  town. 
Brewing,  ice-making,  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs  are 
carried  on,  and  here  is  the  largest  sugar-refinery  in 
South  America.  It  employs  800  workers  and  pro- 
duces 80,000  tons  of  sugar  in  a  year. 

Although  half  a  century  ago  a  determined  effort  was 
made  to  depose  Buenos  Aires  and  promote  Rosario  to 

1  "  We  may  remark  that  the  approach  to  the  town  is  a  shelf  of 
hardened  silt,  varying  from  60  to  nearly  100  feet  high,  which  is, 
in  fact,  the  edge  of  the  Pampasian  formation.  The  outline, 
viewed  in  perspective,  is  diversified  by  headlands  and  double 
distances,  escarpments  and  undercliffs — here  grass-clad,  forming 
comparatively  level  downs  like  those  of  Dover ;  there  dotted 
with  tree  clumps  and  single  trees"  (Burton,  p.  237).  The  com- 
parison with  Dover  is  an  exaggeration,  but  Burton's  book  is 
worth  far  more  attention  than  it  has  received,  for  vigorous 
books  upon  South  America,  written  by  keen  observers,  are  not 
common. 


ARGENTINA  67 

the  position  of  capital,  this  great  commercial  city  is 
not  even  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Santa  Fe.  This 
distinction  is  enjoyed  by  Santa  Fe,  a  small  town  of 
48,600  inhabitants,  founded  by  Juan  de  Garay  in  1573. 
Santa  F£  (hotels,  the  Grand  and  others ;  charges  about 
IDS.  a  day)  is  288  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  is 
reached  by  the  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario  Railway,  but 
it  has  little  to  attract  the  traveller.  There  are,  however, 
several  northern  towns  which  are  well  worth  a  visit. 

CORDOBA 

RAILWAYS— The  distance  from  the  capital  is  about  420  miles,  and 
the  best  trains  take  16  hours  over  the  journey.  The  price 
of  a  single  first-class  ticket  with  sleeping-berth  is  £2  i8s. 
The  journey  is  made  by  the  Central  Argentine  Railway. 

HOTELS — Gran  Hotel  San  Martin,  Calle  San  Geronimo,  an  up- 
to-date  hotel,  charging  about  £i  a  day ;  Gran  Hotel  de 
Roma,  Calle  Dean  Funes ;  Gran  Hotel  Victoria,  Calle  San 
Martin  ;  Gran  Hotel  de  la  Paz,  Avenida  Velez  Sarsfield ; 
all  these  are  considerably  cheaper, 

BRITISH  CONSUL— The  Vice-Consulate  is  vacant. 

BANKS — Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico. 

NEWSPAPERS — Los  Principles,  La  Verdad,  La  Voz  del  Interior. 
There  are  also  three  evening  papers—  Justicia,  La  Petita,  and 
La  Libertad. 

Cordoba,  with  a  population  of  100,000,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  an  old  and 
famous  city.  It  was  founded  by  Cabrera  in  1573,  and 
as  long  as  the  Jesuits  were  allowed  to  continue  their 
beneficent  work  it  was  famed  for  learning  and  its 
University  had  a  great  reputation.  It  was  called 
La  Ciudad  Docta.  There  are  three  theatres — Revira 
Indarte,  Avenida  Velez  Sarsfield,  which  will  hold 
2,000  ;  Argentine,  Avenue  General  Paz  ;  and  Calderon, 
Calle  Constitucion.  There  is  much  to  interest  the 
visitor.  The  city  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  valley 
1,240  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  Nueva  Cordoba 
and  Alta  Cordoba  are  now  more  agreeable  places 


68         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

of  residence  than  the  old  town.  It  is  bisected  by  the 
little  river  Primero.  In  New  Cordoba  a  beautiful  and 
elevated  park  has  been  made.  In  Alta  Cordoba  is 
another  pleasant  park  by  the  river  named  Las  Heras. 
There  are  two  race-courses.  The  city  has  been  greatly 
improved  in  recent  years  and  has  been  opened  out 
by  fine  avenues,  among  which  the  Argentina  and 
General  Paz  may  be  noticed.  Any  part  of  the  town 
or  suburbs  can  be  reached  by  a  good  service  of  electric 
tramcars.  In  the  handsome  Plaza  San  Martin  stands 
the  cathedral,  one  of  the  best  examples  of  church 
architecture  in  Argentina,  whose  domes  and  pinnacles 
give  an  Oriental  effect.  The  old  Jesuit  Church,  built  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  has  a  beautiful  interior.  In 
the  Plaza  San  Martin  also  is  the  old  Cabildo,  and  there 
are  several  other  good  public  buildings  and  fine  statues 
of  Velez  Sarsfield  and  General  Paz.  In  Cordoba  is 
the  National  Observatory,  founded  in  1869,  which  is 
extremely  well  equipped  ;  it  sets  the  time  for  the 
whole  Republic.  There  are  Museums  of  Mineralogy 
and  Geology,  of  Botany,  of  Zoology,  and  the  Poly- 
technic Museum.  The  University  of  Cordoba  is  one 
of  the  most  famous  in  South  America.  It  was  founded 
in  1613  by  Fernando  de  Trejo  ^y  Sanabria,  who  en- 
dowed it  with  his  whole  fortune.  It  is  a  large  and 
well-built  structure,  and  possesses  a  library  of  30,000 
volumes.  As  has  been  said,  it  had  a  great  reputation 
for  learning,  but  with  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and 
the  subsequent  establishment  of  a  Republic  the  Uni- 
versity and  all  other  good  institutions  decayed  ;  in  1870 
it  was  greatly  improved  by  President  Sarmiento.  Here 
Francia,  the  Paraguayan  Dictator,  was  educated.  Dean 
Funes,  who,  as  at  Rosario,  is  commemorated  by  the 
name  of  a  street,  spent  all  his  life  at  Cordoba.  This 
city  is  a  very  important  trade  centre  and  has  a  number 
of  small  manufactures. 


ARGENTINA  69 

Within  50  miles  of  Cordoba  and  easily  accessible 
by  rail  are  the  Sierras  de  Cordoba,  called  the  Argentine 
Switzerland.  Here  are  several  small  health  resorts 
with  hotels,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  La 
Falda,  which  has  an  extremely  good  hotel ;  the  Eden, 
with  92  bedrooms — terms  from  ITS.  a  day.  La  Falda, 
which  is  5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  has  lovely 
scenery. 

TUCUMAN 

RAILWAYS — Tucuman  is  745  miles  from  Buenos  Aires.  The 
journey  can  be  made  by  the  Central  Argentine  or  the  Buenos 
Aires  and  Rosario  Railway  ;  the  first-class  return  fare  is  £8  8s. 

HOTELS — National,  Calle  Las  Heras  ;  Universal,  Plaza  de  la 
Independencia,  Hotel  Europa,  Calle  25  de  Mayo.  All  these 
are  fair  hotels. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  F.  E.  Tirbutt. 

BANKS — Banco  de  la  Provincia  de  Tucuman. 

NEWSPAPERS— El  Heraldo,  El  Orden,  El  Diario  del  Norte,  La 
Verdad. 

Tucuman,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  the  same 
name,  has  78,695  inhabitants.  It  stands  about  1,300 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1565,  and  has  always  been  an  important  place.  In 
1816  a  Congress  met  here  and  declared  the  inde- 
pendence of  Argentina.  Tucuman  is  an  attractive 
town,  with  a  spacious  Plaza  de  la  Independencia, 
flanked  by  the  Cathedral,  the  Government  Palace, 
which  has  replaced  the  old  Cabildo,  and  other  hand- 
some buildings.  There  are  a  good  many  French  in 
Tucuman,  and  they  maintain  a  good  school.  The 
climate  is  rather  warm  and  enervating ;  the  maximum 
temperature  is  104°  Fahr.,  the  mean  68°,  and  the 
annual  rainfall  is  39  inches. 

The  great  industry  of  Tucuman  is  sugar,  which  is 
represented  by  thirty-one  factories  in  the  Province 
with  a  very  large  capital,  which  produce  yearly  about 
1 20  million  tons  ;  the  acreage  is  156,250.  The 


70         A   GUIDE  TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

industry  was  founded  by  two  Frenchmen,  MM.  Hileret 
and  Nougues.  Some  2,000  workmen  are  employed, 
under  conditions  which  leave  something  to  be  desired. 
M.  Clemenceau  says  :  "  The  workmen's  quarters  are 
indescribable  slums.  On  both  sides  of  a  wide  avenue 
there  are  rows  of  tiny  low  houses  from  which  the  most 
rudimentary  notions  of  hygiene  or  of  comfort  are, 
apparently,  carefully  banished — dens  rather  than 
dwellings,  to  speak  accurately,  so  destitute  are  they 
of  furniture.  .  .  .  According  to  European  ideas,  these 
folk  are  wretched  indeed.  Yet  the  climate  renders 
existence  easy  and  they  appear  to  find  quiet  pleasure 
in  it.  We  may  be  permitted  to  imagine  for  them  a 
happier  future  and  higher  stage  of  civilization,  which 
they  will  achieve  when  they  draw  a  larger  share  of 
remuneration  from  the  monument  of  labour  their 
hands  have  helped  to  put  up.  Laws  for  the  protec- 
tion of  labour  are  unknown  in  the  Argentine,  which  is 
explained  by  the  backwardness  of  industry  there." 

Very  few  people  will  wish  to  proceed  farther  north 
than  Tucuman.  There  is,  however,  no  difficulty  in 
visiting  the  little-known  Provinces  of  Salta  and  Jujuy, 
which  are  accessible  by  the  Central  Northern  Railway. 
Salta  (Grand  Hotel  and  Hotel  del  Aguila— 93.  a  day — 
and  the  Hotel  Nacional  and  the  Hotel  du  Commerce 
— 8s.)  is  an  old-fashioned  town  of  30,000  inhabitants, 
situated  at  a  distance  of  950  miles  from  Buenos  Aires, 
at  an  elevation  of  3,300  feet.  The  population  is  largely 
Indian.  Jujuy  (Hotel  Central  and  others  at  95.  a  day, 
of  an  unpretending  type)  is  at  about  the  same  distance 
from  the  capital  and  at  the  same  elevation  as  Salta,  but 
it  is  a  much  smaller  town  ;  here  are  thermal  springs. 
Jujuy  has  more  mining  wealth  than  the  other  Pro- 
vinces of  the  Republic.  It  is  not  advisable  to  go  to 
LaQuiaca,  the  frontier  station  about  170  miles  north  of 
Jujuy,  although  it  is  accessible  by  the  Central  Northern 


ARGENTINA  71 

Railway  ;  the  climate  is  cold  and  disagreeable—  the 
elevation  being  nearly  11,000  feet  —  and  there  are  few 
objects  of  interest.  At  some  future  time  there  will  be 
a  railway  hence  into  Bolivia. 

As  regards  the  north-east  of  Argentina,  the  chief 
object  of  interest  is  the  Iguazu  Falls,  which  may  claim 
to  be  the  world's  greatest  waterfall.  The  following 
table  enables  a  comparison  to  be  made  :  — 


Feet  Feet  Feet 

Iguazu       .........     28,000        13,133         196-220 

Victoria    (Zambesi)       ...     18,000          5,580        350-360 
Niagara     .........     18,000          5,249        150-164 

The  journey  has  been  described  by  Mr.  W.  S. 
Barclay.  The  falls  are  1,175  miles  from  Buenos 
Aires,  and  it  is  well  to  allow  a  fortnight  for  the  expedi- 
tion. The  traveller  can  go  either  by  river  or  by  rail, 
and  perhaps  a  mixed  journey  is  the  more  interesting. 
The  first  stage  is  to  Corrientes  (Hotel  de  France,  Hotel 
du  Globe,  Hotel  de  Mayo),  which  is  810  miles  from 
Buenos  Aires  and  possesses  some  30,000  inhabitants  ; 
this  town,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  the  same 
name,  has  retained  much  of  its  old  Spanish  appear- 
ance. It  is  a  rising  place,  admirably  situated  for  river 
trade.  The  return  fare  by  boat  from  the  capital  to 
Corrientes  is  £9  93.,  and  the  voyage  up  lasts  three 
days.  A  further  journey  of  36  hours  up  the  Alto 
Parana  brings  the  traveller  to  Posadas  (with  three 
hotels,  one  of  which,  built  by  the  Mihanovitch  Com- 
pany, is  very  comfortable).  Hence  the  traveller  may 
take  train  to  Asuncion.  Posadas  is  a  flourishing  and 
rapidly  increasing  town  with  a  population  of  14,000. 
Some  800  or  900  vessels  enter  the  port  every  year. 
The  return  boat  fare  from  Corrientes  to  Posadas  is 
£6  as.  6d.,  and  the  voyage  takes  36  hours.  There 


A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 


is  yet  another  river  journey  to  Puerto  Aguirre, 
which  has  an  hotel  charging  about  143.  a  day.  The 
voyage  occupies  70  hours.  Here  passengers  for 
the  Falls  disembark  and  ride  or  drive  (at  a  cost  of 
about  305.)  to  the  magnificent  cataract.  Posadas  can 
be  reached  more  quickly  from  Buenos  Aires  by  rail. 
The  best  time  for  a  visit  is  between  September  and 
April.  It  is  said  that  the  sound  of  the  falls  can  be 
heard  at  a  distance  of  12  miles,  and  that  there  is  a 
perpetual  rainbow  caused  by  the  spray.  The  spectacle 
of  the  falling  water  may  not  be  as  grand  as  that  of 
Niagara,  owing  to  the  diffusion  caused  by  the  great 
breadth  of  the  river,  but  here  there  is  the  accompani- 
ment of  fine  sylvan  scenery,  and  undoubtedly  the 
Falls  of  Iguazu  are  one  of  the  world's  great  sights. 

THE  TRANSCONTINENTAL  JOURNEY 

It  now  only  remains  to  descrfbe  that  journey  which 
is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  our  itinerary— 
from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso.  At  Mendoza  the 
broad  gauge  ends  and  a  change  of  carriages  is  made. 
The  following  is  the  time-table.  The  dollars  quoted 
in  the  tariff  are  Argentine  pesos,  worth  about  is.  qd. 


Monday, 
Wednesday, 
Friday 

Buenos  Aires  (Retiro) 

dep. 

7.00  a.m. 

||d 

Mercedes  . 

, 

9.05  a.m. 

ofg  J3  5 

Junin 
Rufino 

' 

1  1.35  a.m. 
2.25  p.m. 

l~ft 

Lunch,  dinner, 

Laboulaye 
Mackenna 
Villa  Mercedes 
Villa  Mercedes 

arr. 
dep. 

3.30  p.m. 
5.  10  p.m. 
8.2Op.m. 
8.30  p.m. 

"O  2  £  w 

early  coffee 
on  train, 
85  to  $6- 

(Sleep  in  train) 

lHH 

San  Luis    . 

„ 

11.05  P-m- 

Mendoza   . 

arr. 

4.30  a.m.  J 

: 

ARGENTINA 


Tuesday, 
Thursday, 
Saturday 

Mendoza    .        .        .         arr. 

4.30  a.m. 

}     8- 

(Change) 

\     =3^5^ 

Mendoza  .        .        .       dep. 

5.00  a.m. 

a!|! 

Puente  del  Inca        .         arr. 

n.oo  a.m. 

SIP 

Las  Cuevas        .        .          ,, 

12.00  noon 

}  p" 

Lunch, 

(Change  rail  to  coach,  and  lunch) 

Chile  Time 

82  to  $3 

Las  Cuevas        .        .       dep. 

I2.oonoon 

Summit     .        .        .         arr. 

1.20  p.m. 

1 

Juncal        ...          ,,          4.00  p.m. 

o 

(Change  coach  to  rail) 

(C    i    «  >> 

Los  Andes         .        .         arr. 

(Customs  and  change) 

6.15  p.m. 

•111! 

StSg 

Dinner,  $2 
(at  Los  Andes 

Los  Andes         .        .        dep. 

6.50  p.m.  > 

or  Llai-Llai) 

Llai-Llai    .         .         .         arr. 

8.30  p.m. 

9 

Llai-Llai    .        .        .       dep. 

8.50  p.m. 

•        Ill 

(Change) 

5y>  'a 

Valparaiso         .        .         arr. 

10.40  p.m. 

9 

Santiago    ...          „ 

10.15  p.m.  * 

APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  JOURNEY — BUENOS  AIRES  TO 
VALPARAISO  OR  SANTIAGO 

THROUGH  FARES — Including  beds  in  train,  50  kilogrammes  luggage, 
collected  from  and  delivered  to  hotels  at  points  of  departure  and 
destination. 

First  class  £12  ;  half-ticket  (3  to  12  years) 
Second  class  £7  ;    ,,         „  „         „ 

The  train  passes  through  monotonous  country, 
chiefly  pastoral,  and  there  is  no  object  of  special 
interest  until  Mendoza  is  reached.  At  Mendoza  the 
most  satisfactory  hotel  is  the  Hotel  de  Paris,  kept  by 
an  obliging  old  Frenchman,  and  good  accommodation 
and  food  are  provided,  while  the  charges  are  reason- 
able. The  wines  of  the  country  are  good.  The 
London  and  River  Plate  Bank  and  the  Anglo-South 
American  Bank  have  branches  here.  Mendoza,  with 
40,000  inhabitants,  is  a  charming  town,  the  centre  of 
a  wine  district  and  in  full  view  of  the  Andes.  A 
traveller  who  visited  it  a  few  years  ago  thus  describes 


74         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

it:  "At  the  west  end  a  large  park  and  zoological 
gardens  are  being  made,  and  at  sunset  there  is  a 
beautiful  prospect  from  their  pleasant  walks,  which 
seem  to  be  under  the  very  shadow  of  the  Andes. 
Their  grim  and  jagged  forms  appear  to  be  within  an 
easy  walk.1  But  Mendoza  itself  is  like  a  large  park  ; 
conduits  of  clear  water  run  on  each  side  of  the  streets, 
and  their  banks  are  lined  with  trees.  The  principal 
street,  the  Calle  San  Martin,  is  quite  as  rustic  as  the 
others,  and  it  contains  nearly  all  the  shops,  which  are 
large  and  good  for  a  provincial  town.  There  is  an 
excellent  English  Club  with  a  large  membership,  and 
as  the  climate  of  Mendoza  is  genial,  the  town  is  by  no 
means  a  bad  place  of  residence.  The  chief  peculiarity 
of  the  climate  is  the  almost  complete  absence  of  rain. 
Mendoza  stands  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  3,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  thus,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  temperate.  The  thermometer  rarely 
touches  freezing-point,  and  seldom  or  never  ioo°Fahr., 
but  the  rainfall  is  only  a  few  inches  yearly,  and  this 
rich  district  is  entirely  dependent  for  its  fertility  on 
irrigation." 

The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  are  low  as  a 
precaution  against  earthquakes.  Mendoza  has  a  grim 
memory  of  the  terrific  earthquake  of  March  20,  1861, 
which  destroyed  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 
Fortunately  the  town,  apart  from  slight  shocks,  has 
been  immune  since  that  date,  and  the  only  signs  of 
the  havoc  are  the  ruins  of  the  old  cathedral,  which 
has  been  replaced  by  a  less  massive  building  on  a 
different  site.  Mendoza  is  entirely  devoted  to  the 
wine  industry,  and  the  Bodega  Tamba,  said  to  be  one 
of  the  largest  wine  factories  in  the  world,  is  well  worth 
a  visit.  The  town  is  rapidly  expanding,  and  the  price 
of  land  has  risen  to  a  remarkable  extent. 

They  are,  however,  at  least  30  miles  distant. 


ARGENTINA  75 

Here   the   gauge    of    the   line   is   changed,   which, 
however,  remains  under  the  control  of   the   Buenos 
Aires  and  Pacific  Railway  as  long  as  it  is  in  Argentina. 
After   a  journey  of  about  6  hours  through  a  barren 
mass  of  mountains  the  well-known  Puente  del  Inca  is 
reached.     As  the  name  implies,  here  is  the  Bridge  of 
the  Inca,  and  many  people  take  advantage  of  the  hotel 
and  halt  to  view  this  natural  curiosity,  but  possibly 
those   who   merely  give   it  a  hasty  glance  while  the 
train   is  waiting   have  the  best  of   the  bargain.     For 
the  trains  run  but  three  times  a  week,  and  thus  two 
days  must  be  spent  in  this  desolate  spot,  where  the 
scenery  (except  for  the  view  of  the  glittering  peak  of 
Aconcagua)  is  not  attractive,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
9,000  feet,  which  is  very  likely  to  cause  discomfort. 
The   experience,  however,   is   not   uninteresting ;   the 
climate  in  March  is  cold  and  bracing,  and  a  pleasant 
walk  or  ride  of  10  miles  may  be  taken  to  Las  Cuevas. 
For   the   attractions   of    this   "  rising  watering-place," 
which  are  soon  exhausted,  a  recent  traveller  may  be 
quoted:     "The    bridge    itself    has    a    commonplace 
appearance,   but  it   is  an   extraordinary   natural   phe- 
nomenon.    It  appears  to  be  a  natural  dam  of  earth 
and  rock  lying  athwart  the  Cuevas  River,  which  has 
managed  to  bore  a  passage  through  the  barrier.     The 
stone,  earth,  and  shingle  which  compose  the  arch  have 
been   cemented   together   by   deposits   from    the   hot 
springs,  and  the  bridge  is  66  feet  high,  120  feet  wide, 
and  20  or  30  feet  thick.     Underneath  the  vaulted  arch 
there  bubble  up  springs  of  very  high  temperature,  and 
the   most   striking   feature  here  is   the  glittering   and 
jagged  masses  which  adorn  the  grotto.     The  baths  are 
considered  to  have  great  medicinal  value,  and  there  is 
a  variety  called  the  champagne  bath,  which  all  visitors 
are  urged  to  take." 

From    Puente    del    Inca    the    train    soon   reaches 


76         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Las  Cuevas,  which  is  very  near  the  frontier  line. 
Until  recently  it  was  necessary  at  this  point  to  cross 
the  pass  on  mule-back  or  in  mule-cart,  and  thus  an 
opportunity  was  given  of  seeing  the  statue  of  Christ, 
which  Argentines  and  Chilians  set  up  on  the  frontier 
to  celebrate  the  peaceful  settlement  of  their  boundary 
dispute.  But  in  1910  the  remarkable  tunnel  was 
opened,  and  the  two  countries  are  now  linked  by  the 
iron  rail.  On  emerging,  the  train  stops  at  El  Portillo, 
and  is,  of  course,  on  Chilian  soil.  The  journey  to 
Valparaiso  may  be  briefly  described.  At  first  the 
country  is  completely  barren  and  very  forbidding  in 
appearance,  but  soon  after  leaving  Juncal  the  line  runs 
into  a  broad  valley  watered  by  the  River  Aconcagua, 
where  lucerne  grows  abundantly  and  there  is  plenty  of 
tillage.  At  Llai-Llai — the  junction  for  Santiago — a 
good  dinner  may  be  obtained  at  8.30  p.m.,  and  at 
10.40  p.m.  the  train  reaches  the  terminus,  the  third  of 
the  Valparaiso  stations,  and  a  cab  is  taken  to  the 
Royal  Hotel.  The  journey  from  ocean  to  ocean  has 
been  achieved. 

For  early  Argentine  history  the  Ensayo  of  Dean  Funes, 
published  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1816-17,  is  best,  but  unfortunately 
it  has  never  been  translated  into  English.  Both  in  history  and 
description  the  Mulhalls  have  done  very  good  work,  and  a  new 
edition  of  their  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate  would  be  welcome, 
while  useful  historical  accounts  of  the  country  may  be  found  in 
the  books  of  Mr.  C.  E.  Akers  and  Mr.  T.  C.  Dawson,  who  deal 
generally  with  the  history  of  South  America.  Books  on  modern 
Argentina  are  very  numerous  ;  that  by  M.  Walle  is  very  full  and 
well  written.  A  considerable  amount  of  information  will  be 
found  in  the  following  works  : — 

Koebel,  W.  H.     Modern  Argentina.     London,  1907. 

Argentina  Past  and  Present.     London,  1910. 

Hirst,  W.  A.     Argentina.    London,  1910.    South  American  Series. 
Martinez,  A.  B.,  and  Lewandowsky,  M.     Argentina  in  the  XXtJi 
Century.    (Translated.)     London,  1911. 


ARGENTINA  77 

Martinez,    A.    B.     Baedeker   de    la   Republique    Argentine.     3rd 

Edition.     Barcelona,  1907. x 

Pennington,  A.  S.     The  Argentine  Republic.     London,  1911. 
Walle,  P.     L Argentine  telle  qu'elle  est.     Paris,  1912. 


1  This  is  a  most  useful  book,  and  it  would  be  well  if  other 
South  American  countries  possessed  something  of  the  kind.  It 
gives  all  the  information  which  is  familiar  to  readers  of  Baedeker. 


A  RGENTINE 


BOLIVIA 

Railways  shown  thus  3^=^ 

0  200MILE.S 


I  "GEOGRAPHIA'Lr* 33  STRAND.  LONDON.  WC: 


BOLIVIA 

BOLIVIA  is  the  fourth  largest  of  the  South  American 
Republics,  having  an  area  of  708,195  square 
miles,  but  the  population  is  estimated  at  no  more  than 
2,267,935.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  most  sparsely  populated 
of  all,  having  a  density  of  no  more  than  3*38  to  the 
square  mile.  The  backwardness  of  this  Republic  is 
accounted  for  by  geographical  conditions,  a  remote 
situation,  and  a  troubled  history.  Since  the  war  of 
1879-81,  when  the  valuable  Province  of  Antofagasta 
was  lost,  there  has  been  no  access  to  the  sea,  and  egress 
to  the  neighbouring  countries  is  difficult  on  the  west 
owing  to  the  mountain  barrier,  and  on  the  east  owing 
to  dense  forests.  But  communications  are  being 
rapidly  improved,  and,  with  the  extension  of  railways, 
the  great  natural  resources  of  Bolivia,  now  almost 
untouched,  will  be  more  effectively  utilized.  The 
country  now  suffers  from  lack  of  population.  In  round 
numbers  the  population  may  be  described  as  consisting 
of  300,000  uncivilized  aborigines,  1,000,000  mestizos 
(men  of  mixed  blood,  chiefly  Indian  with  a  slight 
Spanish  strain,  who  speak  native  languages  but  are 
tolerably  civilized),  and  700,000  Spanish-speaking  people 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  Spanish  blood  in  their 
veins,  who  constitute  the  aristocracy  of  the  country. 
High  spurs  of  the  coast  Andes  penetrate  eastwards 
into  Bolivia,  e.g.  Sajana,  which  attains  a  height  of 
21,000  feet,  but  far  more  imposing  is  the  main  chain 

79 


8o         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

(Cordillera  Real,  or  Royal  Cordillera),  which  runs 
from  Lake  Titicaca  south-east  right  through  the  country. 
Of  these  the  noblest  mountains  are  Illimani  (21,339 
feet),  close  to  La  Paz,  and  Sorata  (23,500  feet),  about 
100  miles  north-west.  Illimani  was  climbed  in 
1898  by  Sir  Martin  Conway,  who  gives  a  vivid  descrip- 
tion of  this  great  exploit.  "  Notwithstanding  the  fog 
below,  the  view  was  impressive,  for  we  stood  out  in 
clear  air  and  brilliant  sunshine,  with  towering  clouds 
and  snowy  peaks  near  at  hand.  The  peaks,  draped 
in  broken  ice,  were  magnificent.  The  southern  con- 
tinuation of  the  Cordillera  likewise  lifted  itself  into 
sight,  but  of  Mount  Sorata  and  the  northern  range  we 
saw  nothing,  while  only  patches  of  the  Bolivian  plain 
were  seen  through  gaps  in  its  nebulous  covering."  I 

It  may  be  added  that  the  view  from  great  heights 
seldom  realizes  expectations.  The  elevation  of  the 
Bolivian  towns  is  so  great  that  the  traveller  is  liable 
to  suffer  from  soroche,  or  mountain  sickness,  unless  he 
approaches  them  by  slow  degrees.  La  Paz,  the  largest 
town,  stands  at  12,470  feet  above  the  sea-level,  Oruro 
12,200,  while  Potosi  has  the  unwholesomely  high 
altitude  of  13,325  ;  except  for  Cerro  de  Pasco  in  Peru, 
it  is  the  highest  town  in  the  world.  Sucre  and  Cocha- 
bamba  have  more  moderate  elevations — about  8,000 
feet  each.  The  districts  of  which  the  two  latter  are 
the  centre  grow  cereals  and  are  mainly  agricultural. 
These  mountains  hold  immense  wealth  in  gold,  silver, 
tin  and  copper,  although  the  famous  mines  of  Potosi 
are  not  nearly  as  productive  as  they  were  in  old  times. 
The  eastern  portion  of  Bolivia  is  imperfectly  known, 
but  much  knowledge  has  been  gained  by  the  explora- 
tions of  Major  P.  H.  Fawcett,  who  has  contributed 
valuable  papers  to  the  Geographical  Journal.  "  East 
of  the  Cordilleras  is  a  region  of  forest  and  vast  campos 
1  The  Bolivian  Andes,  p.  138. 


BOLIVIA  81 

or  grass  plains.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  unim- 
portant streams  which  empty  themselves  into  the  great 
lakes  of  Titicaca  and  Poopo,  all  the  rivers  flow  from 
or  through  the  Cordilleras  into  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon  or  Paraguay."  The  frontiers  (especially  the 
Brazilian)  are  the  worst  parts.  "The  climate,  except 
on  the  extreme  frontier,  is  not  unsuitable  for  a  white 
man.  Everything  grows  luxuriantly.  On  the  great 
grass  plains  which  lie  inside  the  belts  of  rich  forest 
bordering  the  rivers'*  there  is  ample  scope  for  cattle- 
raising.  There  is  practically  an  unlimited  field  for  the 
prospector ;  and  the  rifle  can  be  relied  upon  for  food 
within  the  limits  of  the  Amazonian  forests."  But  the 
forests  on  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon  are  unhealthy, 
almost  impenetrable,  and  infested  by  hostile  Indians 
and  many  animal  and  insect  pests.  "  Insects  are 
legion.  They  are  the  pest  of  South  American  travel  : 
mosquitoes  of  course  ;  roca-roca,  a  microscopic  fly, 
which  at  times  makes  observation  work  by  night 
almost  impossible  ;  marigwis,  or  the  Portuguese  pium, 
which  in  the  dry  season  attacks  in  thousands,  every 
one  leaving  its  small  blood-blister ;  '  gehene/  a 
microscopic  nightfly  which  penetrates  any  mosquito 
net ;  tavenas,  or  a  species  of  poisonous  house-fly ; 
wasps  and  bees  of  all  sorts."  After  this  description 
of  discomforts  (of  which  the  above  is  but  a  short 
extract)  by  Major  Fawcett,  it  is  easy  to  sympathize 
with  Sir  Martin  Conway's  comment  :  "  I  am  thankful 
to  say  I  have  not  been  in  the  parts  of  Bolivia  described 
to-night."  Yet  the  Madera-Marmore  Railway  and  the 
Sao  Paulo-Corumba  line  will  tap  the  forest  wealth  of 
Bolivia  on  the  Brazilian  side,  while,  on  the  south  side, 
Tupiza  will  soon  be  in  railway  communication  with 
Argentina.  Bolivia  has  already  780  miles  of  railway, 
and  many  more  lines  are  under  construction  or 
projected.  The  Antofagasta  and  Bolivia  Railway  runs 


82         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

from  the  port  of  that  name  through  Oruro  to  La  Paz. 
The  Arica-La  Paz  Railway  connects  La  Paz  with  the 
port  of  Arica.  The  Bolivia  Railway  connects  Potosi 
and  other  towns  on  the  highlands  with  the  Antofagasta 
and  Bolivia  Railway.  The  Peruvian  Corporation  owns 
one  or  two  short  lines  in  the  neighbourhood  of  La 
Paz.  A  short  account  is  given  of  the  railways  under 
the  headings  of  the  towns. 

Bolivia  lies  entirely  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  the 
climate  is,  of  course,  determined  more  by  elevation 
than  by  latitude.  The  Yungas  or  lower  eastern  slopes, 
up  to  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  have  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  about  74°  Fahr.  On  the  highlands,  where  most 
of  the  population  is  located,,  the  mean  temperature 
ranges  between  50°  and  60°  Fahr. ;  here  the  cold  is 
severe  between  April  and  August,  while  November, 
December,  and  January  have  a  mild  and  summerlike 
climate.  From  17,000  feet  and  upwards  is  a  region 
of  perpetual  snow  and  quite  uninhabited.  The  rain- 
fall is  moderate  in  most  places,  usually  not  exceeding 
30  inches  annually. 

The  hills  on  the  eastern  side  consist  chiefly  of 
palaeozoic  rocks  and  granite ;  the  western  Cordillera 
is  mostly  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  beds.  The  palaeozoic 
rocks  are  often  overlaid  with  red  sandstone,  and  here 
most  of  the  copper  ore  is  found.  The  chief  mineral 
wealth  occurs  among  the  palaeozoic  rocks. 

The  flora  of  Bolivia  is  tolerably  various  owing  to 
the  eastern  forests.  The  vegetable  wealth  is  very  great, 
although,  excepting  in  the  case  of  rubber,  not  much 
use  has  hitherto  been  made  of  it.  The  coca  plant, 
whose  leaves  are  chewed  as  a  stimulant  by  the  Indians 
with  most  pernicious  results,  grows  freely  in  the 
eastern  forests  and  quinine  is  abundant.  Almost 
every  kind  of  tropical  produce  can  be  raised.  On  the 
uplands,  of  course,  vegetation  gradually  becomes  scanty. 


BOLIVIA  83 

The  fauna  of  Bolivia  is  numerous,  and  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  Peru.  The  puma  and  jaguar  are 
found  in  the  forests.  As  in  most  parts  of  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  South  America,  the  peccary  and  tapir 
are  abundant.  The  ant-bear  and  one  or  two  other 
varieties  are  not  uncommon,  and  the  chinchilla,  the 
skunk,  and  other  animals  valued  for  their  fur  are 
often  met  with,  while  monkeys  are  common.  The 
alpaca,  the  vicuna,  and  the  guanaco  are  the  most 
valuable  of  Bolivian  animals.  Rattlesnakes  and  other 
poisonous  serpents  infest  the  forests,  and  the  huge 
anaconda  is  extremely  common.  The  birds  are  a 
varied  tribe,  and  in  the  Andes  the  magnificent  condor 
is  often  seen. 

PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

The  wealth  of  Bolivia  is,  as  yet,  mainly  mineral.     It 
furnishes  one  quarter  of  the  total  tin  supply  of  the 
world.     This  metal  is  found  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  great  mountain  range,  but  the  chief  mining  centre 
is   Oruro,   and    among    the   principal   mines   are    La 
Salvador,   San  Jose,  and  the   Huanuni   group,  which 
includes  the  mines  of  Negro  Pabellon,  Morocala,  and 
Vilacollo.     Silver  is  found,   but   it   is   less   important 
than  in  earlier  days ;  the  chief  mine  now  is  that  of 
Huanchaca,  which  yielded  5,000  tons  of  silver  during 
the  first  twenty-five  years  of  its  existence  in  the  latter 
part    of    the    nineteenth    century.      Gold    is    widely 
diffused,   but    the    mining    is    mostly  carried    on    in 
primitive   fashion,  and   copper  is   not   now  very  im- 
portant.    A    considerable    amount   of   wolfram    and 
bismuth  is  obtained.     The  mineral  wealth  of  Bolivia 
is  enormous,  but  mining  industries  are  hampered  by 
the  inaccessible  situation  of  the  richest  deposits,  and 
thus  the  cost  of  transportation  is  large.     The  soil  of 


84         A   GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

Bolivia  is  fertile,  but  is  imperfectly  cultivated,  and 
the  food-stuffs  raised  are  insufficient  for  home  con- 
sumption. Wheat,  maize,  barley,  and  beans  are 
grown,  and  coca,  quinine,  and  coffee  are  exported. 
Some  sugar  and  cotton  is  raised.  The  chief  vege- 
table product  is  rubber,  which  is  gathered  extensively 
along  the  River  Beni.  For  the  most  part  the  industry 
has  been  carried  on  in  a  reckless  manner,  and  trees 
have  been  ruthlessly  destroyed.  The  Indians  of  the 
forest  are  more  hostile  than  they  were  fifty  years 
ago.  "  Since  that  time  the  savage  has  been  sacri- 
ficed to  rubber  ;  slaughtered  often  under  circum- 
stances of  horrible  barbarity  ;  his  villages  burnt  and 
his  farms  destroyed ;  either  to  secure  forced  labour 
for  the  rubber  estates,  or  to  exterminate  him  from 
the  field  of  its  exploitation  "  (Major  Fawcett).  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  raised  in  considerable  quantities. 

Bolivianos x 

In  1911  the  imports  were 58,371,409 

„    exports      „      82,631,169 

The  imports  are  mainly  cottons,  woollens,  railway 
plant,  mining  machinery  and  textiles.  The  following 
are  the  ctfief  importing  countries  : — 

Bolivianos 

United  Kingdom      12,470,046 

Germany        10,310,934 

United  States                        9,864,615 

Chile 9*837,313 

Belgium          ...                    4,063,954 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  our  country  has  made 
great  advances  in  the  Bolivian  trade  within  recent 
years.  In  1898  its  exports  fell  far  below  those  of 

1  The  boliviano  is  worth  about  is.  8d. 


BOLIVIA  85 

Germany,  and  since  then  they  have  multiplied  nearly 
twelvefold.     The  chief  articles  exported  were : — 

Bolivianos 

Tin       52,639,603 

Rubber           18,921,192 

Silver 4>58y>745 

Bismuth          2,106,162 

The  United  Kingdom  figures  very  prominently  in 
the  export  trade,  taking  articles  valued  at  59,582,279 
bolivianos,  while  Germany,  as  second  share,  only 
takes  10,992,723. 

There  is  practically  no  immigration  into  Bolivia, 
and  this  is  a  great  misfortune  for  the  country,  which, 
above  all  things,  needs  workers  to  develop  her  wealth. 


COINAGE 

In  1906  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  a  coinage 
on  a  gold  basis,  and  the  English  and  Peruvian  pounds 
(which  are  identical  in  value)  are  legal  tender,  while 
the  monetary  unit  and  silver  coin  of  general  circulation, 

i.e.  the  boliviano,  has  a  value  of  nearly  is.  8d. 

•». 

REVENUE  AND  FINANCE 

In  1912  the  revenue  was      ^1,378,968 

„        „   expenditure  was  ...      1,388,523 

The  revenue  is  derived  mainly  from  customs  duties, 
export  duties,  and  spirit  duties.  There  is  an  export 
duty  on  tin  amounting  to  is.  5jd. — 53.  7^-d.  per  cwt., 
according  to  its  value.  There  is  also  an  export  duty 
on  rubber.  The  external  debt,  of  recent  creation, 
amounts  to  .£1,500,000.  There  is  an  internal  debt 
of  10,533,688  bolivianos. 


86         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 
CONSTITUTION 

Bolivia  has  a  Constitution,  which  was  last  re- 
modelled in  1880,  centralized  in  type,  with  a 
President,  two  Vice -Presidents,  and  six  Ministers. 
There  is  a  Senate  with  16  members  and  a  Chamber 
of  Deputies  with  75  members.  Bolivia  is  divided 
into  9  Departments  and  55  Provinces. 

HISTORY 

Bolivia  was  at  first  held  in  slight  repute  by  the 
Spanish  conquerors  ;  but  in  1545  the  stupendous 
silver-mine  of  Potosi  was  discovered,  which  caused 
the  Spaniards  to  turn  their  attention  to  that  region, 
and  three  years  later  La  Paz  was  founded  to  become 
a  large  emporium  of  the  stream  of  traffic  between 
Potosi  and  Lima.  According  to  some  estimates,  the 
amount  of  silver  yielded  by  the  Potosi  mine  in  300 
years  was  .£340,000,000.  "  To  work  these  mines 
the  Spaniards  ruthlessly  impressed  the  helpless 
Indians.  Each  village  was  required  to  furnish  a 
certain  number  of  labourers  annually.  Lots  were 
drawn  as  if  for  a  proscription,  and  the  unhappy 
creatures  who  drew  the  bad  numbers  went  off  to 
meet  a  certain  death  in  the  dark  wet  pits  and  galleries, 
bidding  good-bye  to  their  wives  and  children  like  men 
stepping  on  the  scaffold.  The  destruction  of  life  was 
frightful,  the  official  returns  made  by  the  officials 
charged  with  the  impressment  demonstrating  that  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Potosi  the  Indian  population 
fell  within  a  hundred  years  to  a  tenth  of  its  original 
numbers."  r 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  these 
cruelties .  were  perpetrated  in  direct  defiance  of  the 

1  Dawson.     The  South  American  Republics,  ii.  p.  242. 


BOLIVIA  87 

orders  of  the  Spanish  Government  at  home,  and 
the  condition  of  the  Indians  was  much  improved 
by  the  labours  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  They 
made  a  thorough  study  of  the  Indian  languages,  and 
brought  Christianity  to  the  Chunchos  of  the  Beni  and 
to  the  remotest  forests  of  the  interior.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century  gold  was  discovered, 
and  the  washings  were  at  first  enormously  productive, 
but  were  gradually  exhausted  within  a  hundred  years. 
Till  1776  Bolivia  formed  part  of  the  Viceroyalty  of 
Peru,  but  at  that  date  it  was  detached  and  added  to 
the  Viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  in  1780  the 
general  unrest  was  exemplified  by  the  sanguinary 
revolt  of  Tupac,  a  descendant  of  the  Inca  kings. 
This  Indian  rebellion,  which  was  suppressed  with 
great  cruelty,  was  a  revolt  against  Creole  tyranny, 
and  the  Indians  did  not  show  much  enthusiasm  for 
the  "patriots"  during  the  Revolution.  Bolivia  was 
the  scene  of  fierce  fighting,  and  for  a  long  time  the 
Spanish  loyalists  had  the  advantage.  But  the  vic- 
tories of  Bolivar  and  Sucre  in  Peru  broke  their 
power  and  left  the  Spanish  forces  in  Potosi  so 
completely  isolated  that  the  end  soon  came,  and  in 
April,  1825,  the  last  Spanish  army  was  defeated. 
Thereupon  the  Liberator  Bolivar,  whose  standard 
Lord  Byron  had  dreamed  of  following,  gave  the  new 
Republic  his  name  and  its  present  inconvenient 
boundaries,  with  the  important  exception  that 
Bolivia  then  had  the  maritime  province  of  Antofa- 
gasta,  since  lost.  General  Sucre  was  first  President, 
but  within  two  years  he  was  driven  out,  and  Bolivia 
fell  into  anarchy,  which  lasted  for  more  than  forty 
years,  and  needs  no  description.  In  1879  Bolivia, 
being  involved  with  Peru  in  the  nitrate  dispute 
against  Chile,  took  the  losing  side,  and,  sharing  in 
Peru's  defeat,  lost  Antofagasta,  and  all  access  to  the 


88         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

sea,  which  has  never  been  recovered.  However, 
this  severe  blow  appears  to  have  braced  the  Republic, 
for  its  subsequent  history  has  been  more  peaceful 
and  prosperous.  The  resources  of  the  country  de- 
veloped, revolutions  became  less  frequent,  and  a 
troublesome  boundary  dispute  with  Brazil  was  settled 
by  the  cession  of  part  of  the  Acre  territory  on  the 
promise  of  Brazil  to  build  the  Madera-Marmore 
Railway,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  soon  be  completed. 
The  news  that  the  arbitrators  in  the  boundary 
dispute  with  Peru  had  decided  against  Bolivia  caused 
some  excitement  at  La  Paz  in  1909,  but  happily  no 
war  resulted.  Further  boundary  troubles  occurred 
with  Ecuador,  but  the  boundaries  are  being  deter- 
mined by  English  exploration  parties,  and  the  recent 
history  of  Bolivia  has  been  peaceful.  Senor  Eliodoro 
Villazon  was  elected  President  in  1909,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  General  I.  Montes,  who  was  elected 
in  1913.  The  recent  history  of  Bolivia  consists  chiefly 
in  railway  building  and  in  negotiations  to  secure 
ports  upon  the  Pacific  and  affluents  of  the  Amazon 
and  River  Plate.  If  these  matters  be  settled  satis- 
factorily, the  prosperity  of  the  Republic  will  proceed 
apace. 

LA  PAZ 

COMMUNICATIONS — To  reach  the  chief  city  of  Bolivia  the  traveller 
has  a  choice  of  three  routes — from  Antofagasta,  Arica,  or 
Mollendo.  Perhaps  the  best  tourist  route  is  to  enter  by 
Arica  and  leave  by  Mollendo. 

i.  BY  ANTOFAGASTA— The  distance  to  La  Paz  is  719  miles.  With 
a  view  to  escaping  mountain  sickness  (soroche)  it  is  well 
to  halt  at  the  Chilian  town  of  Calama  (Grand  Central  Hotel), 
where  the  elevation  is  only  7,435  feet.  Thence  the  journey 
proceeds  through  vast  extinct  volcanoes,  over  Ascotan 
(13,010  feet)  the  highest  point,  and  so  across  the  frontier 
at  Ollegue  (about  1,000  feet  lower).  Farther  inland  is 
Uyuni  (good  French  hotel),  at  an  elevation. of  12,000  feet, 
whence  there  is  a  short  branch  line  to  a  silver-mine.  Then, 


BOLIVIA  89 

after  a  long,  dreary  stretch,  the  lake  of  Poopo  is  reached. 
This  sheet  of  water  is  55  miles  long  and  25  broad  ;  it  is  very 
shallow.  From  the  lake  it  is  but  a  short  journey  to  Oruro 
(12,200  feet),  an  important  mining  town  with  about  20,000 
inhabitants.  Here  there  is  a  fair  hotel  and  a  considerable 
English  colony,  engaged  in  the  management  of  mines.  On 
this  subject  Sir  Martin  Conway  has  a  remark  which  is  worth 
considering  :  "  Speaking  generally,  this  was  characteristic 
of  South  America  :  where  work  was  to  be  done  involving 
the  management  of  men  in  any  numbers,  or  of  machinery, 
there  was  generally  an  English-speaking  person  in  control ; 
whereas,  where  it  was  a  question  of  selling  cheap  goods 
to  suit  the  local  taste  and  requirements,  such  trade  was 
in  the  hand  of  Germans.  Germany  has  learned  what  Eng- 
land has  not,  the  importance  and  profitableness  of  exporting 
her  shopkeepers.  In  the  great  tide  of  English  emigration, 
the  shopkeeping  element  has  taken  but  a  small  part."  Oruro 
is  a  dreary-looking  place  and  has  no  attractions  apart  from 
its  mines  ;  it  is  quite  devoid  of  vegetation. 

The  railway  then  proceeds  north-east  till  it  arrives  at  Alto 
de  La  Paz,  from  which  is  obtained  a  view  of  La  Paz  itself, 
lying  in  a  hollow  at  a  distance  of  5  miles.  Here  the  steam 
line  comes  to  an  end,  and  it  is  necessary  to  descend  to 
the  town  in  a  small  electric  railway.  The  total  journey  takes 
36  hours. 

2.  ARICA  is  267  miles  from  La  Paz.    The  first-class  fare  on  this 

line  is  2^d.  a  mile ;  the  time  occupied  on  the  up  journey 
is  15  hours,  on  the  down  12.  The  highest  point  on  the 
line  is  13,986  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

3.  MOLLENDO  (in  Peru)  is  531  miles  from  La  Paz,  and  this  route 

is  even  loftier  than  the  other  two.  The  journey  is,  at  first, 
highly  picturesque,  and  the  pretty  town  of  Arequipa,  which 
is  described  in  the  Peruvian  section,  is  passed.  The  highest 
point  of  this  line  is  14,666  feet.  At  Puno  (12,540  feet) 
the  rail  is  left  for  the  steamer,  and  the  marvellous  Lake 
Titicaca  is  crossed.  At  Guaqui  the  train  is  rejoined,  and 
it  is  a  short  journey  of  55  miles  to  Alto  La  Paz.  The 
journey  occupies  28  hours. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Guilbert.  This  is  an  old-established  and  good 
house.  The  rates  are  from  8s.  6d.  to  £i  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipo- 
tentiary and  Consul-General,  W.  G.  Gosling.  Vice-Consul, 
G.  T.  Maclean. 


90         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

BANKS — Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America. 

NEWSPAPERS — La  Paz,  El  Tiempo,  La  Verdad,  El  Progreso  Bolivia, 

La  Epoca,  El  Diario,  La  Tarde,  La  Action.    The  Comercio 

de  Bolivia  is  a  weekly. 

Opinion  seems  to  be  greatly  divided  as  to  whether 
La  Paz  or  Sucre  is  the  capital.  Some  authorities 
compromise  by  saying  that  Sucre  is  the  nominal 
capital  and  La  Paz  is  the  seat  of  government.  As  La 
Paz  is  undoubtedly  the  seat  of  government,  the  foreign 
Ministers,  the  chief  trade,  and  the  principal  railway, 
it  certainly  might  be  called  the  capital  without  quali- 
fication. It  is  beautifully  situated  with  the  noble 
Illimani  in  full  view.  The  population  is  78,856. 

When  the  city  was  in  process  of  building  there  was 
no  railway,  and  the  materials  were  laboriously  brought 
up  by  means  of  mules ;  it  is  not  to  be  expected, 
therefore,  that  it  should  abound  in  fine  buildings. 
The  streets  are  very  steep.  The  fashionable  parade 
is  the  Plaza  Murillo — a  garden  with  delightful  flowers 
— and  the  Alameda  is  a  fine  promenade  bordered  by 
trees.  The  Executive  Palace  and  several  other  Govern- 
ment offices  look  upon  the  Plaza  Mayor.  Here  also 
is  the  fine  cathedral,  which,  however,  has  been  inter- 
rupted in  its  construction  by  various  political  troubles, 
and  is  still  unfinished.  It  was  begun  in  1835,  and  is 
designed  to  hold  12,000  people.  The  old  church  of 
San  Francisco  is  also  a  handsome  building.  La  Paz 
possesses  a  university  with  Faculties  of  Law,  Medicine, 
and  Theology.  There  is  also  a  military  school.  The 
city  is  lighted  by  electricity  and  has  a  service  of  electric 
cars.  There  is  an  excellent  market  well  provided  with 
fruit.  Situated  near  the  source  of  the  Chiquiapu  River, 
and  standing  12,120  feet  above  the  sea-level,  La  Paz 
has  a  cool  climate.  The  mean  temperature  is  54°  Fahr., 
and  the  records  vary  from  19°  to  75°  Fahr.  The  place 
is  tolerably  healthy,  but  the  high  elevation  is  trying  to 


BOLIVIA  91 

weak  hearts,  and,  indeed,  affects  every  one  unfavour- 
ably. The  higher  the  elevation,  the  less  the  supply  of 
oxygen,  and  thus  vigour  declines.  Sir  Martin  Conway 
points  out  that  this  is  very  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
racing,  which  is  a  favourite  sport  at  La  Paz,  but  the 
atmosphere  diminishes  the  power  of  the  horses,  and  a 
distance  of  but  half  a  mile  is  too  great  a  strain  upon 
the  thoroughbred.  He  mentions  that  a  very  fine  horse 
was  brought  up  from  Chile  and  allowed  to  race  before 
he  was  acclimatized.  The  strain  was  too  great,  and  he 
died  the  next  day. 

As  we  have  seen,  many  South  American  countries 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  field  of  poetry 
and  general  culture,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  the 
literature  of  Bolivia  has  attained  more  than  a  local 
reputation.  One  of  her  best  poets  is  Ricardo  Busta- 
mente,  who  published  in  1883  an  epic,  Hispano- 
America  Libertada,  in  honour  of  the  memory  of 
Bolivar.  The  poem,  which  is  a  glorification  of  the 
various  events  and  heroes  of  the  revolution,  shows  the 
influence  of  Camoens. 

"  Buenos  Aires  !  matrona  americana, 
La  emula  de  Sevilla  en  jentileza ; 
Al  horde  de  su  rio,  asi  galana 
Monstrandose  cual  culta  en  su  belleza  : 
Del  Sultan  de  los  rios  gran  Sultana  ; 
Nido  de  amor,  verjel  de  la  belleza, 
De  bravos  patria,  de  poetas  cuna, — 
Epocas  cuenta  de  cruel  f ortuna  ! "  * 

A  distinguished  lover  of  books  was  Jose  Rosendo 
Gutierrez,  who  compiled  a  very  comprehensive  bib* 

1  "  Buenos  Aires  !  mother  of  America,  rival  of  Seville  in  comeli- 
ness, on  the  banks  of  thy  river  how  gaily  dost  thou  display  the 
charm  of  thy  beauty,  mighty  Sultana  of  the  Sultan  of  rivers  ;  nest 
of  love,  garden  of  beauty,  land  of  brave  men,  cradle  of  poets — in 
what  cruel  days  was  thy  lot  cast ! " 


92         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

liography  of  Bolivian  literature.     But  Bolivia  has,  as 
yet,  contributed  little  to  the  world's  literature. 

La  Paz  is  the  chief  centre  of  commerce  and  has  an 
active  trade.  British  traders  have  been  recommended 
by  the  Consul  to  extend  their  operations  here,  for  the 
foreign  trade  has  multiplied  in  a  marvellous  manner 
during  the  last  few  years.  British  trade  has  also  made 
considerable  headway.  Merchants  are  recommended 
to  pack  their  goods  very  strongly  to  protect  them 
against  the  rough  usage  which  they  will  receive  on  the 
mountain  tracks. 

When  the  traveller  has  spent  a  short  time  at  La  Paz, 
it  is  probable  that  he  will  have  had  enough  of  Bolivia 
and  be  anxious  to  get  to  a  lower  level.  But  he  will  be 
omitting  a  far  more  beautiful  and  agreeable  city  than 
La  Paz  if  he  fails  to  visit  Sucre. 

SUCRE 

COMMUNICATIONS— Potosi  is  the  nearest  railway-station,  and  is 
72  miles  from  Sucre.  The  journey  is  made  by  diligence. 
It  goes  by  way  of  Negro-Tambo,  Bartolo,  Lagurillas, 
Quebrada  Houda,  Pampa-Tambo,  and  Calera. 

HOTELS— Gran  Hotel  Colon,  Plaza  de  25  Mayo;  Hotel  de  25 
Mayo,  Plaza  de  25  Mayo  ;  Hotel  Espana. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Consul,  E.  F.  Moore. 

BANKS — None. 

NEWSPAPERS — La  Manana,  La  Industria,  La  Capital,  El  Dia. 
The  Revisto  de  Derecho  y  Jurisprudencia  is  a  monthly 
publication. 

The  beautiful  city  of  Sucre,  with  23,416  inhabitants, 
occupies,  as  has  already  been  stated,  a  somewhat 
uncertain  position.  It  was  first  known  as  Ch areas, 
later  as  Chuquisaca,  or  Golden  Bridge,  and  the 
Spaniards  called  it  La  Plata,  from  the  quantity  of 
silver  discovered  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  was  finally 


BOLIVIA  93 

named  Sucre  in  honour  of  the  general  who  was  the 
first  President  of  Bolivia ;  it  was  the  only  honour  he 
received  in  his  lifetime,  for  the  Bolivians  drove  him 
out  of  Sucre,  and  he  was  shortly  afterwards  murdered 
by  his  countrymen,  the  Venezuelans.  During  the 
Spanish  dominion  it  was  the  chief  city  in  Bolivia. 
In  1826  it  was  declared  the  provisional  capital  of  the 
Republic,  but  this  is  an  honour  which  has  also 
befallen  La  Paz,  Oruro,  and  Cochabamba.  Since 
1898  La  Paz  must  be  considered  as  the  capital, 
although  the  Supreme  Court  is  still  located  at  Sucre. 

Standing  8,860  feet  above  the  sea-level  by  the 
Cachamayo,  a  feeder  of  the  Pilcomayo,  Sucre  is  a 
very  charming  place  with  a  perfect  climate.  The  chief 
square  is  the  Plaza  25  de  Mayo,  in  the  centre  of  the 
town,  and  the  Plaza  Libertad,  the  Plaza  Sucre,  the 
Plaza  Rocoleta,  and  the  Plaza  Monteagudo  may  also 
be  mentioned.  In  the  principal  square  is  the  new 
Government  Palace,  the  finest  building  in  the  town. 
The  Palace  of  Justice,  where  the  Supreme  Court  holds 
its  sessions,  is  also  handsome.  Sucre  is  the  seat  of  the 
Archbishop  of  La  Plata,  and  the  cathedral  dates  from 
the  seventeenth  century.  In  it  is  a  fine  painting  on 
copper,  The  Vision  of  San  Cayetano,  which  was  brought 
from  Spain.  The  chief  university  in  Bolivia,  that  of 
San  Francisco  Xavier,  was  founded  in  1623,  and  is 
the  second  oldest  in  South  America.  It  has  about 
200  students.  At  Sucre  is  the  Archive  Nacional,  which 
is  one  of  the  best  historical  collections  in  South 
America. 

Many  years  ago  the  town  was  thus  described,  and 
it  has  not  altered  much  since  : *  "  The  streets  and 
squares  of  the  town  are  broad,  and  fairly  well  paved, 
and  the  town  has  altogether  a  rather  imposing  appear- 
ance, although  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  sanitary 

1  Mathews.     Up  the  Amazon  and  Madeira  Rivers,  pp.  265-6. 


94         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

arrangements  of  the  municipality  should  in  Sucre,  as 
well  as  in  the  other  principal  towns  of  Bolivia,  be 
remarkable  and  conspicuous  solely  from  the  utter 
absence  of  care  or  attention  to  the  commonest  require- 
ments of  our  times."  Some  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  sanitation,  and  visitations  of  typhoid  are 
less  frequent.  The  industries  are  insignificant ;  there 
is  a  chocolate  factory  and  a  flourmill.  Sucre  is 
remarkable  for  a  curious  sweetmeat  made  out  of  clay, 
which  is  rolled  into  sticks  and  greatly  enjoyed  by 
the  Indians. 

COCHABAMBA 

COMMUNICATIONS — Cochabamba  is  somewhat  more  accessible 
than  Sucre.  It  is  rather  more  than  100  miles  from  Oruro, 
and  a  line,  which  will  soon  be  completed,  is  open  for  part 
of  the  way.  The  journey  can  also  be  made  by  diligence, 
lasting  2  days  and  costing  about  £2  los. 

HOTELS— Gran  Hotel  Continental,  Plaza  de  14  Setembro  ;  Hotel 
du  Commerce  ;  Hotel  Central. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  A.  Barber. 

BANKS — None. 

NEWSPAPERS—  Eraldo,  El  FerrocarriL 

Cochabamba,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the 
same  name,  has  an  elevation  of  nearly  9,000  feet  and 
a  population  of  24,512.  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  a 
valley  to  the  south  of  the  great  mountain  Tunari. 
Founded  in  1570,  it  received  in  1786  from  Charles  III 
the  title  of  "  loyal  and  valorous,"  in  recognition  of  its 
services  in  putting  down  the  Tupac-Catari  rebellion. 
It  rose  against  the  Spaniards  on  September  14,  1809, 
and  the  principal  Plaza's  name  commemorates  the 
date.  Cochabamba  has,  like  Sucre,  several  pleasant, 
park-like  squares  and  a  beautiful  Alameda.  The  public 
buildings  are  of  the  usual  type,  and  there  is  a  hand- 
some cathedral.  It  is  a  busy  trade  centre,  being  near 


BOLIVIA  95 

a  good  agricultural  district,  and  it  is  hoped  that  a 
railway  will  soon  be  built  to  Chimore,  a  district  rich 
in  rubber.  Mathews  said  :  "The  chief  wealth  of  the 
Department  appears  to  be  in  agriculture,  for  Cocha- 
bamba  may  certainly  claim  to  be  the  agricultural 
capital  of  Bolivia,  La  Paz,  Potosi,  and  Oruro  being  the 
chief  mineral  centres,  whilst  the  true  capital  of  the 
Republic,  Sucre,  is  the  political  and  educational 
centre.  Cochabamba  is  the  storehouse  for  the  crops 
of  wheat,  maize,  barley,  and  potatoes  that  are  grown 
on  the  plains  on  which  the  city  is  built.  There  are 
many  large  gardens  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town, 
which  produce  fruits  of  all  kinds,  such  as  grapes, 
oranges,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  apricots,  and  straw- 
berries. Roses,  carnations,  camelias,  and  most 
European  flowers  are  also  grown>  so  that  a  visitor 
may  easily  fancy  himself  in  the  South  of  France,  or 
even  in  a  well-stocked  garden  at  home,  only  that  the 
latter  idea  must  be  one  of  the  finest  summer  days  of 
England  for  the  comparison  to  hold  good  at  all,  for 
it  is  almost  impossible  otherwise  to  compare  the  blue 
sky  and  fine,  clear  atmosphere  of  Cochabamba  with 
our  own  murky  and  cloudy  skies." 

If  the  traveller  has  seen  Oruro,  Potosi,  Sucre, 
Cochabamba,  and  La  Paz,  he  may  claim  to  have  a 
very  fair  knowledge  of  Bolivia,  but  probably  most  will 
be  satisfied  with  Oruro  and  La  Paz.  Before  many 
years  have  passed,  it  may  be  easy  to  enter  Bolivia  by 
rail  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  even  from  Brazil.  The 
development  of  the  marvellous  system  of  waterways 
afforded  by  the  Amazon  and  the  River  Plate  is  in  its 
infancy,  and  will  make  travelling  much  more  easy  for 
the  next  generation  in  South  America.  Now  much 
of  the  best  country  has  to  be  approached  through  the 
inhospitable  Andes,  and  the  traveller  in  Bolivia  will 
be  fortunate  if  he  has  escaped  several  sharp  attacks  of 


96         A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

mountain  sickness.  However,  the  chance  of  escape  is 
increased  if  the  heights  be  ascended  in  stages  of  not 
than  5,000  feet. 


English  books  on  Bolivia  are  not  numerous,  but  a  work  of  the 
South  American  Series  has  just  been  published  on  it  —  i.e.,  Walle 
Paul  :  Bolivia  (translated  by  Mr.  Miall).  London,  1914.  The 
following  deals  with  the  mountainous  parts  of  Bolivia  :  — 

Conway,  Sir  W.  Martin.    The  Bolivian  Andes.     London,  1901. 
A  very  valuable  work  is  — 

Mathews,    E.     D.      Up    the    Amazon  and   Madeira  Rivers. 
London,  1879. 

Several  towns  in  the  east  of  Bolivia  are  admirably  described. 
The  following  is  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  country  :  — 

Wright,    Marie     Robinson.     Bolivia.     London   and    Phila- 
delphia, 1905. 

An  old  work  gives  valuable  information  about  the  forest 
products  :  — 

Weddell,  H.  A.     Voyage  dans  Le  Nord  de  la  Bolivie.     Paris, 

1853- 
Van  Brabant,  W.     La  Bolivie.     Paris,  1909. 

This  last  work  gives  much  useful  recent  information. 


BRAZIL 

FEW  people  realize  the  enormous  size  of  Brazil. 
It  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  South  American 
Republics;  and  covers  more  than  half  the  continent. 
If  Alaska  is  excluded  from  the  area  of  the  United 
States,  Brazil  ranks  as  the  fourth  largest  country  in 
the  world.  The  area  is  3,218,991  square  miles,  and 
the  population  is  estimated  at  21,580,000.  It  has  con- 
siderably more  than  twice  as  many  inhabitants  as  any 
of  its  neighbours,  but  about  one  million  of  them  are 
more  or  less  savage  Indians. 

From  a  glance  at  the  map  of  Brazil  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  country  is  divided  by  Nature  into  three  parts. 
In  the  north  is  the  Amazon  with  its  tributaries.  The 
basin  of  the  Amazon,  it  will  be  observed,  possesses  a 
fair  number  of  towns  and  settlements,  though,  owing 
to  its  immense  area,  they  appear  but  few  and  far 
between.  The  next  division  consists  of  Brazil  proper, 
and  includes  the  States  of  Sao  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes, 
Bahia,  Pernambuco,  Ceara,  and  others.  In  the  south 
we  have  the  region  of  the  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  which  is 
made  up  of  the  States  of  Rio  Grande,  Santa  Catherina, 
and  Parana.  The  centre  of  Brazil,  which  stretches 
from  the  Amazon  basin  in  the  north  to  the  basin  of 
the  Parana  in  the  south,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  State  of  Goyaz,  is  absolutely  uncivilized  and  much 
of  it  unexplored.  Naturally,  with  such  an  immense 
territory,  the  geographical  and  climatic  conditions 

99 


ioo       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

vary  extremely.  The  Amazon  is  the  largest  river  in 
the  world,  and  by  far  the  greatest  part — 3,380  miles— 
of  it  is  in  Brazil.  The  banks  are  covered  with  immense 
virgin  forests,  which  flourish  in  the  hot  and  humid 
atmosphere  engendered  by  the  river.  The  valley  of 
the  Amazon  has  been  populated  within  comparatively 
recent  times,  and  is  still  in  an  undeveloped  state. 

Brazil  proper,  the  ancient  and  historic  Brazil,  is 
situated  in  a  tableland  near  the  Atlantic  sea-border, 
stretching  from  the  confines  of  Uruguay  to  French 
Guiana.  The  length  of  the  tableland  is*  about  2,000 
miles.  It  is  highest  in  the  south,  where  it  reaches  an 
elevation  of  about  3,200  feet,  and  slopes  gently  down 
as  it  goes  north.  The  presence  of  this  high  ground  is 
very  clearly  indicated  by  the  map,  which  shows  that 
practically  no  rivers  of  any  size  flow  into  the  Atlantic 
south  of  the  San  Francisco.  Many  have  their  sources 
in  the  country,  but  they  all  flow  inland  and  sweep 
round  the  tableland  to  empty  themselves  into  the  sea 
far  away.  Notable,  among  them  is  the  Parana,  which 
rises  in  Minas  Geraes  and  flows  south  through  Paraguay 
to  join  the  River  Plate  ;  the  Uruguay  also  rises  in  Rio 
Grande  and  is  the  boundary  line  between  that  State 
and  Santa  Catherina,  until  it  reaches  the  borders  of 
Paraguay,  where  it  turns  south  and  divides  that 
country  from  Rio  Grande,  and  finally  flows  through 
Uruguay  to  join  the  waters  of  the  River  Plate  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  San  Francisco,  which  has  its  source 
also  in  Minas  Geraes,  flows  almost  due  south  up  to 
Pernambuco,  when  it  turns  sharply  to  the  east  and 
empties  itself  into  the  Atlantic.  In  the  south  of  Brazil 
the  Atlantic  side  of  this  plateau  is  an  immense  bank 
about  2,500  or  3,000  feet  high.  This  long  ridge  is 
called  the  Serra  do  Mar  in  the  south  and  the  Serra 
Gual  in  the  north.  Behind  the  Serras  is  the  State  of 
Minas  Geraes,  a  mountainous  and  rugged  region.  The 


BRAZIL 

landscape  of  Sao  Paulo  forms  a  sharp  contrast  to  it  ; 
the  bleak,  inhospitable  nature  of  the  country  is  changed 
and  Sao  Paulo,  where  developed,  is  a  fertile  and 
pleasant  region. 

Brazil  has  the  reputation  of  being  a  land  of  forests, 
which  it  chiefly  owes  to  the  proximity  of  the  forests  of 
the  sea  coast.  There  is  a  strip  of  land  between  the 
Serra  and  the  sea  upon  which  the  wet  winds  of  the 
Atlantic  are  condensed  and  trickle  down  to  form 
swamps  along  the  coast  strip,  where  tropical  vegetation 
flourishes,  and  from  the  sea  the  impression  is  given 
that  Brazil  is  covered  with  forests.  But  behind  the 
Serra  the  landscape  is  quite  different,  and  even  where 
woods  occur,  they  are  less  luxuriant. 

The  climate  of  Brazil,  as  far  as  the  temperature  is 
concerned,  is  very  much  the  same  all  the  year  round, 
and  the  seasons,  instead  of  being  divided  into  summer 
and  winter,  are  distinguished  as  the  wet  and  dry 
periods.  The  rainy  season  begins  in  September  and 
lasts  till  March.  The  dry  season,  though  hot,  is  more 
healthy.  This  applies  to  the  Brazil  of  the  coast  and 
north  ;  the  tableland  has  a  temperate  climate,  and  that 
of  Rio  Grande  approximates  to  the  climate  of  Buenos 
Aires. 

The  geology  of  Brazil  is  noteworthy  because  its 
formations  are  of  immense  antiquity  and  have  existed 
without  disturbance  from  a  very  remote  period.  The 
mountains  consist  chiefly  of  high  strata  of  gneiss  and 
metamorphic  schists  with  granite  and  various  eruptive 
rocks.  The  tablelands  are  horizontal  strata  dating 
from  the  Silurian  age. 

The  flora  of  Brazil  is  tropical,  and,  despite  the 
immense  number  of  naturalists  who  have  investigated 
it,  they  have  by  no  means  exhausted  its  immense 
variety.  The  timber  of  Brazil  has  been  held  in  high 
esteem  ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  country.  One 


IC2       A.  GIJJDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

of  its  most  valuable  trees  is  the  wax  palm  (Copernicia 
ceriferd),  whose  roots  have  valuable  medicinal  proper- 
ties, while  its  fruit  and  stem  yield  milk,  as  well  as  wine 
and  vinegar,  and  the  straw  is  valuable  and  the  leaves 
produce  wax.  The  coconut-palms  grow  in  great 
variety.  Dye-woods,  aromatic  shrubs,  and  nut-bearing 
trees  are  innumerable.  Orchids  and  fruits  are  very 
numerous,  but  under  the  section  devoted  to  products 
a  brief  account  will  be  given  of  a  few  of  the  principal 
vegetable  crops. 

The  fauna  is  numerous,  but  the  only  large  mam- 
mals are  the  jaguar,  puma,  peccary,  tapir,  capybara, 
aquatic  manatee  and  fifty  species  of  apes.  The 
peccary  is  a  kind  of  hog,  and  the  white-lipped  variety 
(Dicotyles  labiatus)  is  very  savage.  The  capybara  is  a 
huge  guinea-pig.  The  rattlesnake  is  common  and  the 
insects  are  present  in  the  forests  in  innumerable 
variety. 

COMMERCE  AND  PRODUCTS 

Brazil  exports  raw  materials  and  imports  manu- 
factured goods. 

In  1911  the  imports  were  1,003,924,736  milreis.1 
„   exports  were  795,563,450 

The  following  are  the  countries  most  largely  repre- 
sented in  the  import  trade  : — 

Milreis 

Great  Britain       230,541,951 

Germany 133,274,167 

United  States       ...  106,798,624 

France       70,200,121 

Argentina .'.         ...  60,476,809 

Portugal    42,692,593 

Italy           33,104,015 


1  The  milreis  is  worth  about  is.  4<1. 


BRAZIL  103 

\  The  imports  of  Brazil  are  very  general  in  character, 
and  the  principal  items  are  machinery,  cotton  goods, 
wheat,  flour,  jerked  beef,  coal  and  wine.  England 
sends  most  of  the  cotton  goods. 

The  exports  of  Brazil  are  chiefly  coffee  and  rubber, 
and  coffee  is  by  far  the  most  important,  as  the 
following  list  of  the  exports  in  1911  will  show. 

Coffee        ^40,401,206 

Rubber      15,057,015 

Yerba  mate           1,983,209 

Cocoa         1,641,381 

Cotton        978,998 

Tobacco 965,375 

Skins          647,564 

Sugar          ...  408,659 

To  this  list  should  be  added  diamonds,  which  are 
exported  in  considerable  quantities,  but  the  exporters 
contrive  to  evade  the  vigilance  of  the  customs 
officers. 

Coffee  is  by  far  the  largest  product  of  Brazil,  which 
contributes  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  that 
article.  The  coffee-growing  States  are  Sao  Paulo,  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Espirito  Santo,  and  Minas  Geraes,  but  Sao 
Paulo  is  much  the  most  important.  The  industry  was 
introduced  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  made 
little  progress  until  about  1840,  when  the  crop 
amounted  to  40,000  tons.  It  steadily  increased,  and 
by  1870  the  production  of  Brazil  was  3,763,908  bags,1 
or  a  little  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  coffee  of  the 
world. 

Sao  Paulo  at  one  time  had  produced  cane,  cotton, 
and  cereals,  but  the  coffee  fever  seized  upon  all  the 
inhabitants  :  every  one  believed  that  coffee-planting 
was  the  one  path  to  wealth,  and  the  production 
increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  last  years  of  the 
1  A  bag  is  132  Ib. 


104       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

nineteenth  century  saw  the  activity  at  its  height,  and  in 
1901  the  production  amounted  to  16,270,678  bags.  In 
the  eighties  and  early  nineties  the  prices  had  been 
highly  remunerative,  varying  from  £2  i6s.  per  cwt.  to 
^5  45.,  but  the  immense  increase  in  supply  had  the 
inevitable  effect,  and  the  price  fell  in  1901  to  £i  4s. 
In  October,  1905,  it  was  clear  that  the  harvest  would 
be  on  an  unprecedented  scale,  and  the  planters,  and 
with  them  the  whole  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  were  face  to 
face  with  ruin.  The  State  Government,  which  had 
long  regarded  the  position  with  anxiety,  had,  in  1902, 
passed  a  law  prohibiting  any  further  planting  of  coffee, 
but  this  was  no  immediate  remedy,  for  the  coffee  shrub 
takes  some  years  to  come  to  maturity.  The  State, 
therefore,  began  borrowing  money  with  a  view  to 
buying  up  the  surplus  stock  of  coffee  and  holding  it 
for  a  rise,  and  thus  the  great  valorization  scheme  came 
into  being.  The  first  step  was  for  the  State  of  Sao 
Paulo  to  buy  up  the  surplus  supply  of  coffee,  which 
was  done  at  a  price  more  than  double  that  prevailing 
in  the  open  market.  This  had  the  effect  of  paralysing 
speculation,  for  no  merchant  was  now  willing  to  buy 
coffee  with  the  risk  of  seeing  the  market  suddenly 
flooded  by  an  unlimited  supply  emitted  by  the 
State. 

The  crop  of  1906  amounted  to  over  20  million  bags. 
By  way  of  a  counterpoise  a  tax  of  3  francs  was  imposed 
upon  all  bags  of  coffee  exported  from  Brazil.  But  the 
price  continued  to  fall.  By  1907  the  State,  having 
purchased  10,000,000  bags  and  sold  3,000,000,  found 
itself  possessed  of  a  stock  of  7,000,000  bags,  and  was  in 
a  position  of  great  embarrassment,  for  it  could  not 
continue  to  sell  without  utterly  demoralizing  the 
market.  At  last,  with  the  aid  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, a  loan  of  .£15,000,000  was  raised  with  the  help 
of  English,  French,  and  Belgian  bankers.  The  coffee 


BRAZIL  105 

was  then  handed  over  to  the  trustees  of  the  loan  as 
security.  At  the  same  time  the  export  tax  was  raised 
to  5  francs  a  bag.  The  difficulties  were  not  ended,  but 
it  was  finally  arranged  that  the  Government  purchases 
should  be  limited  to  500,000-700,000  bags  in  any  one 
year,  and  an  equally  important  measure  was  the  im- 
position of  a  prohibitive  tax  on  the  export  of  coffee 
above  a  fixed  amount,  viz.  : — 

Bags. 

1908-9 9,000,000 

1909-10  9,50O,OOO 

I9IO-II  IO,OOO,OOO 

The  experiment  has  hitherto  been  successful,  partly 
owing  to  the  falling  off  in  the  crop,  and  the  price  of 
coffee  is  now  satisfactory.1  In  1910  Consul  O'Sullivan- 
Beare,  who  made  a  valuable  report  on  the  subject, 
concluded  :  "Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  spite  of 
much  adverse  criticism  and  gloomy  prognostication, 
the  State  of  Sao  Paulo  has  emerged  triumphantly  from 
the  ordeal  of  its  attempt  to  interfere  with  the  laws  of 
demand  and  supply  in  the  matter  of  coffee.  It  is  true 
that  the  amelioration  in  the  condition  of  the  State 
within  the  past  three  years  is  to  be  attributed  to  good 
fortune  rather  than  to  good  management.  Neverthe- 
less, on  the  principle  that  '  nothing  succeeds  like 
success/  the  State  is  to  be  heartily  felicitated  upon  the 
condition  of  prosperity  to  which  it  has  eventually 
attained.  At  the  present  time  the  market  price  of 
coffee  stands  higher  than  at  any  other  period  during 
the  past  sixteen  years.  The  State  has  already  made 
considerable  progress  towards  amortization  of  the 
coffee  loan,  and  will  have  no  difficulty  in  liquidating 
it  within  the  stipulated  period  of  ten  years.  The 
5  franc  surtax  on  coffee  exported  is  hardly  felt  by  the 
planters,  in  view  of  the  rise  in  prices ;  and  lastly,  the 
1  The  price  is  now  about  £2  8s. 


1 06       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

State  can  count  upon  making  a  clear  profit  of  some 
.£4,000,000  in  connection  with  the  sale  of  the  balance 
of  the  stock  of  valorization  coffee.  In  a  word,  the 
position  of  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  financial  and  eco- 
nomic, is  more  satisfactory  at  the  present  time  than  at 
any  previous  period  during  the  history  of  the  State." 

Next  in  importance  is  the  rubber  industry.  It  is 
only  about  thirty  years  ago  that  the  development  of 
the  Amazonian  regions  and  the  systematic  production 
of  rubber  began.  Labourers  were  imported  from  the 
State  of  Ceara,  and  the  demand  for  rubber  increased 
faster  than  the  supply.  In  1890  the  export  was 
16,000  tons,  in  1900  28,000,  in  1905  33,000,  and  in 
1907  35,404.  In  1910  the  amount  was  38,547,  and 
in  1911  36,547.  The  fall  in  price  is  naturally  checking 
the  prosperity  of  the  industry.  The  tree  which  yields 
the  best  Para  rubber,  the  Hevea  brasiliensis,  is  found 
all  over  the  swampy  districts  about  the  Amazon. 
Good  rubber  is  also  produced  by  the  Castilloa  elastica, 
which  grows  on  firm,  dry  soil,  and  is  therefore  more 
common  along  the  upper  branches  of  the  Amazon. 
Ceara  rubber  comes  from  the  Manihot  Glaziovii,  and 
Mangabeira  rubber  from  the  Hancornia  speciosa.  The 
process  of  rubber-gathering  and  its  preparation  for  the 
market  have  often  been  described,  and  so  also  have 
the  cruelties  which  have  been  perpetrated  on  the  un- 
fortunate paraoras,  or  rubber-gatherers.  Mr.  Martin  * 
says  :  "The  man  who  makes  most  money  in  rubber- 
growing  is  probably  the  proprietor  of  the  ground  or 
the  lessee.  He  is  a  terrible  sweater,  and  grinds  the 
unfortunate  seringueiros  mercilessly.  He  builds  their 
huts  and  dwellings,  and  transports  them  at  his  own 
cost  to  the  Seringal,  where  they  work  the  trees  and 
extract  the  sap,  nominally  keeping  for  themselves 
'  50  per  cent,  of  the  rubber  extracted.'  I  say  nomin- 
1  Through  Five  Republics,  p.  224. 


BRAZIL  107 

ally  advisedly,  because  the  truck  system  is  in  force 
here  in  its  worst  form.  The  employer  of  seringueiro 
labour  insists  upon  supplying  his  workmen  with  all 
their  requirements,  such  as  clothes,  boots,  food,  drink, 
etc. — especially  drink — and  sells  all  these  bien  entendii 
at  his  own  price.  By  the  time  the  unfortunate  work- 
men have  paid  for  their  luxuries,  or,  rather,  for  them 
combined  with  the  system  of  fines  and  other  imposi- 
tions, their  '  50  per  cent.'  has  dwindled  considerably." 
It  is  convenient  for  the  British  public  to  assume  that 
Putumayo  is  an  isolated  instance,  and  that  there  was 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  a  rubber  forest  was  not  an 
earthly  paradise  up  to  the  revelations  in  Truth.  But 
the  above  extract  was  published  in  1905,  and  every  one 
who  knows  anything  about  South  America  knows  that 
Putumayo  was  fairly  typical  of  the  remoter  rubber 
forests,  just  as  the  conditions  described  by  Mr.  Martin 
represent  the  true  nature  of  the  Brazilian  rubber 
industry.  Further,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
whole  storm  of  moral  indignation  has  ameliorated  the 
lot  of  a  single  rubber-gatherer,  and,  like  Macaulay's 
virtue,  our  humane  susceptibilities  will  go  quietly  to 
sleep,  and  the  oppression  will  continue  as  long  as 
there  is  a  demand  for  wild  rubber. 

The  industry  of  yerba  mate  is  elsewhere  described. 
Cocoa  is  grown  in  very  large  quantities,  especially  in 
the  State  of  Bahia. 

The  cotton-growing  industry  is  developing  rapidly 
in  Brazil.  It  can  be  grown  in  nine  States,  from  Bahia 
to  Manahao.  The  zone  in  Brazil  where  cotton  can  be 
grown  is  far  vaster  than  that  of  the  United  States,  but 
as  yet  the  production  is  small  in  comparison.  The 
growers,  as  a  rule,  are  small  farmers,  who  raise  it  in 
conjunction  with  other  crops,  such  as  maize  and 
beans,  and  the  cultivation  is  of  a  very  primitive 
kind.  The  greater  part  of  the  Brazilian  cotton  crop 


io8       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

is  consumed  at  home.  It  is  very  desirable  in  the 
interest  of  Brazil  that  cotton-growing  should  be 
encouraged  to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  for  the 
Republic  now  depends  for  its  wealth  chiefly  upon 
coffee  and  rubber — commodities  which  are  subject  to 
strong  competition,  whereas  the  demand  for  raw 
cotton  has  for  many  years  been  greater  than  the 
supply. 

Tobacco  is  a  most  important  crop  in  Brazil,  and 
the  quality  is  very  good,  while  its  cultivation  is  easy 
and  lucrative.  It  is  chiefly  raised  in  Bahia,  Para, 
Minas  Geraes,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  Goyaz.  A 
French  traveller  says  that  notwithstanding  the  faulty 
methods  of  cultivation,  "  the  tobacco  leaf  of  Bahia  is 
deservedly  renowned  and  appreciated,  so  that  French 
tobacco  manufacturers  make  very  large  purchases 
every  year."  There  is  a  large  export  of  hides,  which 
come  chiefly  from  the  cattle-raising  States  in  the 
south. 

The  sugar-growing  industry  of  Brazil,  which  was 
founded  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  considerable, 
although  not  so  large  as  it  was  some  years  ago.  The 
cane  is  grown  in  most  States,  but  most  of  all  in  Per- 
nambuco,  and  the  port  of  Pernambuco  is  the  centre  of 
the  industry.  With  better  methods,  the  production 
would  be  much  larger. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  Brazil  pursues  a 
policy  of  high  Protection.  The  duties  are  very  high, 
and  thus  the  prices  of  all  articles  are  enhanced,  in 
consequence  of  which  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one  of  the 
dearest  places  imaginable.  The  object  of  the  Govern- 
ment is  to  protect  home  manufacturers,  who  could 
otherwise  hardly  withstand  the  competition  of  the 
foreigner,  and,  further,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the 
public  revenue  could  be  raised  were  it  not  for 
the  tariff.  The  burden  upon  the*  poor  is  heavy,  and 


BRAZIL  109 

probably  there  is  in  Brazil  a  stronger  Free  Trade 
party  than  in  any  other  South  American  country, 
and  the  question  is  frequently  argued  in  the  excellent 
Jornal  do  Commercio. 

It  is  certain  that  the  tariff  wall  has  enabled  industries 
to  grow  up.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  is 
the  most  important.  It  is  principally  carried  on  in 
the  States  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Sao  Paulo,  and  great 
pains  have  been  taken  to  obtain  the  best  instructors 
and  the  most  modern  machinery.  The  yarn  is  usually 
imported,  and  the  varieties  of  cotton  cloth  turned  out 
are,  for  the  most  part,  coarse.  Brazil  possesses  194 
cotton-mills,  with  761,816  spindles  and  27,958  looms. 
Woollens  are  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Flour-milling,  glass  and  biscuit  factories,  and  a  number 
of  small  and  miscellaneous  industries,  may  be  noted. 
Brewing  is  carefully  protected,  and  there  are  most 
flourishing  breweries  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  elsewhere. 
But  it  will  be  seen  that  manufacture  is  not  a  very 
important  element  in  the  national  life  when  it  is  said 
that  the  3,258  factories  of  Brazil  employ  only  151,841 
persons. 

The  mineral  production  of  Brazil  is  small,  con- 
sidering the  immense  wealth  which  the  land  conceals. 
What  was  said  by  Sir  Richard  Burton  forty-five  years 
ago  remains  true  :  "  The  riches  are  still  in  the  ground, 
and  the  nation  is  undoubtedly  poor."  It  is  certain  that 
in  former  times  Brazil  produced  gold  to  the  value  of 
over  .£100,000,000,  and  it  is  still  found  in  nearly  every 
State,  but  the  mines  of  Minas  Geraes  are  the  only  ones 
that  are  really  productive.  The  two  chief  companies 
are  the  St.  John  del  Rey  and  the  Ouro  Preto,  both 
English.  The  natives  obtain  a  considerable  amount 
of  gold  by  washing.  In  Minas  Geraes  and  several 
other  States  there  are  extensive  iron  deposits.  Much 
interest  has  of  late*  been  taken  in  them,  but  as  yet 


I  io       A    GUIDE    TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

little  has  been  done  to  exploit  this  wealth,  and  Brazil 
continues  to  import  a  great  quantity  of  iron.  There 
are  productive  manganese  mines,  and  the  export  of 
that  article  amounts  to  about  .£380,000.  On  the  coast 
from  Bahia  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  are  very  valuable 
deposits  of  monazitic  sand,  which  are  employed  in 
making  gas  mantles.  These  are  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Coal  exists  in  considerable  quantity,  but  is 
not  worked  to  any  large  extent. 

The  most  interesting  mining  industry  of  Brazil  is 
the  diamond.  Diamonds  were  first  discovered  by  the 
Morrinhos  River  near  Diamantina  in  1721.  This 
industry  was  at  once  declared  the  property  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  and  it  soon  became  very  lucrative, 
the  export  of  stones  between  1732  and  1771  being 
valued  at  .£3,600,000.  In  1832  the  diamond-fields 
were  thrown  open.  The  "  Braganza,"  now  one  of  the 
crown  jewels  of  Portugal,  was  found  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  other  noteworthy  finds  were  the  "  Regent," 
and  the  "  Estrella  do  Sul."  This  last  weighed  255 
carats  in  its  rough  state  and  125  when  cut.  In  1910  the 
"  Estrella  de  Minas,"  of  175  carats,  was  discovered.  Of 
this  industry  the  most  important  centre  is  Diamantina 
in  Minas  Geraes,  but  they  are  found  also  in  the  States 
of  Bahia  and  Matto  Grosso.  Diamond-mining  in 
Brazil  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  small,  isolated  workers, 
who  employ  very  primitive  methods,  washing  the 
diamondiferous  gravel  in  the  baiea,  or  basin  of  hard 
wood,  and  the  process  is  very  similar  to  that  of  gold- 
washing.  Extremely  valuable  are  the  carbons  which 
are  used  for  pointing  the  drills  used  in  mining  opera- 
tions. A  few  years  ago  a  fine  stone  of  a  reddish 
colour,  weighing  2|  carats,  was  sold  in  London  for 
.£3,000.  It  is  believed  that  many  Brazilian  diamonds 
are  sold  as  Kimberley  products,  and,  indeed,  the 
South  American  variety  is  considerably  more  valuable 


BRAZIL  in 

than  that  of  South  Africa.  The  produce  of  Brazil 
is  undoubtedly  large,  but,  owing  to  smuggling,  it  is 
impossible  to  know  what  is  the  real  value  of  the 
diamond  export.  The  mining  situation  in  Brazil  is 
summed  up  by  the  Consul  of  Bahia,  who  says  : 
"There  is  no  doubt  that  minerals  of  various  classes 
exist  in  the  State,  but  it  appears  to  be,  at  present, 
impossible  to  work  them  at  a  profit.11  The  cost 
of  transporting  machinery  up-country  devours  the 
earnings. 

MONEY  AND  EXCHANGE 

The  standard  coin  of  Brazil  is  the  milreis,  the  par 
value  of  which  is  about  2yd.  There  are  no  gold 
coins  circulating  in  Brazil  and  their  place  is  taken 
by  a  paper  currency.  This  is  considerably  depre- 
ciated and  is  practically  inconvertible.  At  present 
the  rate  of  exchange  stands  at  about  i6d.  In  1889, 
at  the  time  of  the  revolution,  the  paper  issue  amounted 
to  174  millions  of  milreis,  and  the  exchange  was 
slightly  above  par  at  27  ^d.  The  new  Republican 
Government  soon  followed  the  bad  example  set  by 
many  South  American  Republics,  and  proceeded  to 
issue  paper  money  recklessly.  The  result  was  disas- 
trous. By  1897  the  exchange  had  fallen  to  9^d.,  while 
two  years  later  it  was  as  low  as  6d.  or  7d.  Having 
thus  depreciated  the  currency,  the  Government  then 
set  to  work  to  attempt  a  remedy.  As  usual  when 
a  large  banking  reform  was  contemplated,  an  appeal 
was  made  to  London  bankers.  In  1898  what  is  known 
as  the  funding  loan  was  negotiated  in  London,  and 
it  was  carried  out  by  the  Rothschilds.  A  loan  of 
^10,000,000  was  issued  at  5  per  cent,  interest,  which 
was  guaranteed  by  a  first  mortgage  on  the  customs 
receipts  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  other  ports.  Brazil 
paid  the  Rothschilds  for  the  bonds  as  they  were  issued 


112        A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

in  paper  money,  reckoned  at  an  exchange  of  i8d., 
which  was  immediately  destroyed.  This  plan  was 
partly  successful  and  exchange  rose  again.  By  1908 
about  145  millions  of  milreis  paper  had  been  destroyed, 
and  the  exchange  had  risen  to  i6d.  The  aim  of  the 
Brazilian  financiers  was  as  much  to  steady  the  rate 
of  exchange  as  to  raise  it,  and  to  attain  this  object 
the  Caisse  de  Conversion  was  instituted  in  1906.  It 
is  similar  to  the  Argentine  Caisse  de  Conversion.  Its 
function  is  to  issue  notes  against  gold  received  by 
it  from  the  Government  and  other  depositors.  These 
notes  are  convertible  on  presentation  to  the  Caisse. 
By  this  means  the  exchange  has  been  steadied,  as  the 
convertible  paper  currency  of  the  Caisse  has  acted 
as  a  counterbalance  against  the  inconvertible  currency 
of  the  Government.  The  Caisse  notes  are  convertible 
at  the  rate  of  15  milreis  to  the  pound  sterling.  They 
amount  to  about  one-sixth  of  the  total  notes  circulating 
in  Brazil. 

FINANCE  AND  REVENUE 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  Empire  the  finances  of 
Brazil  have  been  mismanaged  by  the  Republican 
Government,  and  deficits  are  very  common.  Between 
1906  and  1909  the  total  deficit  was  about  .£10,170,000. 
In  1912  the  revenue  was  ^34,506,954  and  the  expendi- 
ture .£34,492,689.  For  1913  the  estimated  revenue 
was  ^39,603,165  and  the  expenditure  .£41,890,535. 
The  foreign  debt  amounts  to  .£82,903,120  and  the 
internal  paper  debt  to  620,525,600  milreis. 

RAILWAYS 

Considering  its  size  and  population,  Brazil  is  not 
very  well  supplied  with  railways,  having  a  mileage 
of  only  about  13,611.  There  is  no  general  system, 
and  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  the  various 


BRAZIL  113 

lines  form  little  knots  about  the  sea-coast,  having 
grown  up  around  the  chief  centres  of  population.  Of 
late  considerable  improvements  have  been  made, 
especially  in  the  country  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  south- 
ward, and  the  Brazilian  and  Uruguayan  capitals  are 
now  united  by  lines  of  railway. 

Brazilian  railways  are  partly  State-owned  and  partly 
owned  by  companies.  In  many  cases  the  Government 
has  granted  a  company  concessions  and  guaranteed 
a  fixed  rate  of  interest  for  a  certain  period.  This 
system  has  not  proved  very  satisfactory.  At  present 
the  policy  of  the  Federal  Government  is  to  buy  up 
when  possible  the  railways  from  the  companies  that 
own  them.  It  does  not  intend  to  work  them,  but 
to  lease  them  to  tenant  companies.  Under  this 
scheme  the  Bahia  system  has  been  expropriated  and 
leased  to  the  Auxiliary  Railway  Company.  The  State 
of  Sao  Paulo  has  bought  the  Sorocabana  Railway  and 
leased  it  to  a  Franco-German  syndicate. 

The  Great  Western  Railway,  one  of  the  best  lines 
on  the  continent,  has  a  large  system  radiating  from 
the  port  of  Pernambuco.  The  Bahia  system  is,  on 
the  whole,  less  efficient.  There  is  now  a  much 
improved  combination  of  railways  in  the  south  of 
the  Republic,  and  considerable  extensions  are  being 
made.  An  interesting  and  valuable  line  is  the  Madera- 
Marmore  Railway,  210  miles  in  length,  which  has 
lately  been  constructed  round  the  series  of  cataracts 
and  rapids  on  the  Madeira  and  Marmore  Rivers,  by 
which  navigation  was  interrupted.  From  Porto  Velho 
on  the  Madera,  which  was  the  farthest  point  to  which 
steamers  could  come,  a  railway  has  been  built  to 
Guayara  Mirim  on  the  Marmore.  Hence  also  a  line 
was  built  to  Riberalta,  in  Bolivia,  and  a  port  on  the 
Beni.  The  result  has  been  to  open  an  Atlantic  outlet 
for  the  trade  of  Bolivia. 


H4       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

IMMIGRATION 

It  is  necessary  before  closing  the  account  of  the 
industrial  conditions  of  Brazil  to  say  a  few  words 
about  immigration,  for  upon  that  its  progress  mainly 
depends.  Every  country  in  South  America  suffers  from 
lack  of  population,  and  Brazil  perhaps  more  so  than 
any  other  ;  in  fact,  her  two  staple  industries,  coffee  and 
rubber,  were  insignificant  until  the  one  received  the 
assistance  of  Italian  peasants  and  the  other  of  the 
men  of  Ceara.  During  the  past  century  fully  three 
million  immigrants  have  entered  Brazil.  In  1911  the 
number  was  153,203,  and  the  following  table  shows 
their  nationality  : — 

Portuguese           46*754 

Spaniards 27,007 

Italians       22,821 

Russians 13,898 

Syrians  ...                                           ...  6,233 

Germans 4»223 

Austrians 3,327 

French       1,340 

Swedes      1,116 

English      1,045 

Others        5,852 

These  figures,  however,  are  net,  i.e.  they  take  no 
account  of  emigration,  which  is  sometimes  consider- 
able, and  so  it  may  be  imagined  that  the  Government 
and  employers  of  labour  look  upon  the  prospect  with 
anxiety.  The  prosperity  of  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo 
was  entirely  built  up  by  Italians,  who  used  to  pour  in 
multitudindusly.  They  were  extremely  good  workers, 
and  assimilated  very  well.  It  was  believed  that  a 
million  Italians  had  settled  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo, 
and  most  of  them  had  forgotten  their  own  language. 
"  A  Venetian  meeting  a  Sicilian  will  speak  to  him 
in  Portuguese  rather  than  learn  the  Southern  dialect." 


BRAZIL  115 

But,  not  unnaturally,  the  Italian  Government  became 
anxious  about  the  constant  drain  upon  the  population, 
and  began  actively  discouraging  emigration  in  1902, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  coffee  crisis  caused  many 
of  the  Italians  to  leave  Sao  Paulo.  To  some  extent 
the  falling-off  has  been  counterbalanced  by  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  Spaniards  ;  but,  although  the  Brazi- 
lian Government  makes  every  effort  to  attract  immi- 
grants, and  has  made  admirable  provision  for  their 
welfare  from  the  moment  of  their  landing,  the  popu- 
lation difficulty  remains.  About  one-fifth  of  the 
population  is  negro,  and  the  negroes  are  extremely 
inefficient  workers ;  no  planter  of  Sao  Paulo  would 
hire  any  kind  of  native  labour  if  he  could  obtain 
Italian.  The  German  immigration  into  Southern 
Brazil  is  now  small,  but  up  to  1859  the  Germans 
entered  the  country  in  great  numbers,  and  these 
people  have  proved  very  tenacious  of  their  nationality. 
In  many  parts  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul;  German  is  the 
current  language.  Estimates  of  the  number  vary  very 
much,  but  some  computations  put  them  at  nearly 
a  million. 

It  is  certain  that  Brazil  is  no  place  for  the  English 
settler,  who  is  constantly  warned  not  to  come.  The 
Consul  at  Bahia  says  :  "  The  country  is  not  suited  for 
colonization  by  Europeans,  and  can  never  be  expected 
to  progress  like  the  more  temperate  States  in  the  south 
of  the  Republic."  Brazil,  as  a  whole,  is  less  attractive 
to  emigrants  than  Argentina,  still  less  than  Canada, 
Australia,  and  the  United  States.  Everything  is  very 
dear,  and  wages  are  low. 

HISTORY  AND  CONSTITUTION 

Brazil  was  one  of  the  earliest  portions  of  the  New 
World  to  be  discovered.  In  1499  Vincente  Yanez 
Pingon  sighted  Cape  Augustine  and  coasted  along 


ii6       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

as  far  as  the  Amazon.     He  carried  home  various  pro- 
ducts, including  the  Brazil  wood,  which  gave  the  name 
to  the  whole   country.     The  wood  is  mentioned   by 
Ascham   in    his    Toxophilus,  and   the   name   Terra  de 
Brazil  was  at  once   applied   to   the   new   land.     The 
next  year  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral  arrived  off  the  southern 
coast  of  the  State  of  Bahia.     He  did  nothing  of  impor- 
tance on  this  coast,  but  he  sent  a  vessel  to  Portugal 
formally  announcing  the  discovery,  and  the  King,  Don 
Manuel,  began  to  take  an  interest  in  his  new  territory. 
Amerigo   Vespucci  was  dispatched,  but  he   failed  to 
establish  a  permanent  settlement,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  Brazilian  coast  was  neglected.    But  the  Portuguese 
knew  that  Spain  was  making  efforts  in  the  Plate  dis- 
trict, and  they  wished  to  secure  a  position  on  a  conti- 
nent which  seemed  likely  to  fall  entirely  under  Spanish 
influence.     So  Alfonso   de   Souza,  a   brave   and  able 
navigator,  sailed  with  five  ships  and  reached  the  coast 
near  Pernambuco  early  in  1531,  and  sailed  southwards 
with  the    intention    of   founding  a  settlement  on  the 
Plate.      But,  having  lost  a  ship,  he  thought  it  prudent 
to  retrace  his  steps  northwards,  and  in  1532,  on  the 
ist  of  January,  entered   the   magnificent   bay  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  and  gave   to  the  place  the  name  of  the 
month  of  the  discovery.     He  also  established  a  post 
at  Sao  Vincente  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  the 
Portuguese   colonists    soon    began    to    flourish.     De 
Souza  is  undoubtedly  the  founder  of  Brazil. 

Within  a  few  years  twelve  fiefs  were  granted  on  the 
coast  between  the  Amazon  and  Santa  Catherina,  and 
six  of  them  became  permanent  centres  of  Portuguese 
influence.  Pernambuco  was  on  the  track  of  all  ships 
voyaging  to  South  America,  and  it  early  became  the 
seat  of  the  sugar  trade.1  But  the  Spanish  explorers 

1  In  1586  it  was  the  leading  port  of  the  east  coast.  See 
Purchas  His  Pilgrimes,  xvii.  263  :  "  Now  to  return  unto  Fer- 


BRAZIL  117 

were  making  great  progress  on  all  sides,  and  the 
Portuguese  Government  found  it  necessary  to  con- 
centrate its  petty  chiefs  and  appoint  a  responsible 
governor.  The  first  governor  was  Thomas  de  Souza, 
who  in  1549  established  his  capital  at  Bahia.  Six 
Jesuits,  the  first  of  that  Order  to  land  in  the  New 
World,  accompanied  the  expedition,  and  they  at  once 
began  their  labours  among  the  Indians,  the  principal 
of  which  was  to  discourage  cannibalism.  At  Rio  de 
Janeiro  the  French  at  this  time  held  possession.  The 
story  of  their  ejection  is  thus  told  in  Purchas *  :  "  But 
the  King  of  Portugall  sent  a  power  of  men  against  the 
Frenchmen,  and  first  took  the  French  ships  by  Sea, 
and  then  landed  and  besieged  the  Fort,  and  in  time 
took  them  with  the  Captaine,  and  because  the  French 
Captaine  was  a  Gentleman  and  never  hurt  the  Por- 
tugals,  they  gave  him  thirtie  thousand  Ducketts  for 
his  Ordnance,  with  all  things  that  they  had  in  the 
Fort,  and  so  sent  him  for  France,  and  the  Portugals 
inhabited  the  River."  The  name  of  the  Frenchman 
was  Villegagnon,  and  the  settlement  by  the  Portuguese 
was  effected  in  1567. 

By  this  time  the  civilized  population  of  Portuguese 
Brazil  was  about  60,000,  of  whom  20,000  were  whites. 
Rio  de  Janeiro  was  as  yet  insignificant  compared  with 
Pernambuco  and  Bahia. 

When  Portugal  became  united  with  Spain,  Brazil 
attracted  the  hostile  attention  of  English  marauders, 
and  her  coasts  were  plundered  by  Withington,  Caven- 

namboche,  inhabited  by  a  Portugall  Capitaine  called  Eduarte 
Coelio,  this  is  the  greatest  Towne  in  all  that  Coast,  and  hath 
above  three  thousand  houses  in  it,  with  seventie  Ingenios  of 
Sugar,  and  great  store  of  Brasill  wood,  and  good  store  of  Cotton, 
yet  are  they  in  great  want  of  victuals,  for  that  all  they  have 
cometh  out  of  Portugall,  and  from  other  places  there  on  the 
Coast." 

1  Ibid.,  26. 


ii8        A    GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

dish,  and  Lancaster.  But  these  incursions  had  small 
effect,  and  enterprising  Portuguese  leaders  made 
conquests  over  the  Indians,  and  frustrated  French 
efforts  to  re-establish  themselves  in  South  America. 
However,  their  ill-starred  amalgamation  with  Spain 
brought  upon  the  Portuguese  another  very  formid- 
able enemy  in  Brazil.  The  Dutch,  after  long  fighting, 
subjugated  practically  the  whole  group  of  settlements, 
and  when  Count  John  Maurice  came  out  in  1630  and 
began  to  rule  the  new  conquests  with  vigour  and 
prudence,  it  seemed  that  they  would  be  the  dominat- 
ing power  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America. 
But  that  nation  has  always  lost  its  dominions  by  fail- 
ing to  support  its  brave  commanders,  and  Maurice 
offended  the  Calvinist  ministers  and  the  trading  in- 
terests, and  when  he  retired  in  1644  the  fortunes  of 
the  Dutch  were  beginning  to  wane.  In  1640  Portugal 
had  recovered  her  independence  and  was  in  a  position 
to  help  her  Brazilian  subjects  to  expel  the  Dutch. 
This  great  work  was  chiefly  accomplished  by  John 
Fernandes  Vieira,  and  by  1655  Pernambuco  and  all 
the  other  places  were  surrendered  by  Schoppke,  the 
Dutch  commander.  Thus  South  America  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Latin  race. 

The  rest  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  uneventful, 
but  during  the  Dutch  wars  the  Brazilians  had  engaged 
in  less  creditable  transactions  than  resistance  to  the 
invaders.  The  Paulistas,  or  men  of  Sao  Paulo,  from 
time  to  time  ravaged  the  Jesuit  settlements  to  the 
south  and  perpetrated  horrible  outrages.  Their  in- 
cursions had  an  extremely  important  result  in  deter- 
mining that  a  large  slice  of  South  America  should  be 
not  Spanish  but  Portuguese.  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  forest  country  along  the  Plate  affluents,  as  well 
as  Uruguay  (Banda  Oriental),  was  marked  out  for 
Spain,  but  it  was  lost  owing  to  the  aggressions  of 


BRAZIL  119 

the  Paulistas.  During  the  eighteenth  century  also 
there  was  a  standing  quarrel  between  Spain  and 
Portugal  over  the  coast  boundary. 

In  1690  gold  was  discovered,  which  attracted  a  host 
of  adventurers.  In  fifty  years  the  State  of  Minas 
Geraes  produced  seven  and  a  half  million  ounces 
of  gold,  but  after  a  time  the  mining  industry  lan- 
guished under  illiberal  laws.  The  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  involved  Brazil  in  the  troubles  of  Europe  ; 
and  later,  in  1718,  a  French  fleet  attacked  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  after  hard 
fighting.  The  Portuguese  treated  their  prisoners 
barbarously.  Next  year  the  French  Admiral  Duguay- 
Trouin,  with  a  strong  fleet,  destroyed  the  Portuguese 
ships  and  captured  Rio,  but,  having  no  wish  to  establish 
a  settlement,  returned  to  France  almost  immediately 
with  much  booty. 

About  this  time  diamonds  were  discovered,  and 
Brazil  was  long  the  chief  source  of  the  world's 
supply.  The  rest  of  the  century  was  a  time  of 
tolerable  prosperity.  There  were  endless  disputes 
with  Spain  over  the  port  of  Colonia,  which  the  Por- 
tuguese had  placed  in  the  heart  of  Spanish  territory, 
and  some  fighting  occurred,  chiefly  during  the  Seven 
Years  War,  but  at  last,  in  1777,  Colonia  was  given  up 
to  Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  was 
recognized  as  the  possession  of  Portugal ;  this  was 
practically  a  legacy  of  the  Paulistas.  The  high-handed 
Pombal  was  as  rigorous  a  reformer  in  Brazil  as  in 
Portugal,  and  in  1760  he  committed  the  great  crime  of 
expelling  the  Jesuits.  The  colony,  however,  continued 
to  prosper.  The  capital  had  been  transferred  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro  in  1763,  but  Bahia  remained  the  chief  trade 
centre,  and  the  increasing  practice  of  importing  negro 
slaves  added  to  the  prosperity  of  the  sugar  and  mining 
industries.  However,  the  great  event  of  1789  was 


120       A    GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

beginning  to  cast  its  shadows,  and  Brazil,  like  its 
neighbours,  was  infected  with  the  revolutionary  spirit. 
A  futile  conspiracy  of  poets  in  Minas  came  to  a  head 
in  the  very  year  1789,  and  the  leader,  Tiradentes,  was 
hanged.  But  Brazil,  large  and  heterogeneous  in  race, 
was  the  least  favourable  part  of  South  America  for  the 
new  doctrines,  and  the  royal  migration  helped  to  stimu- 
late the  loyalty  of  the  people.  This  is  one  of  the  chief 
events  in  Brazilian  history.  The  Regent  Dom  John, 
with  his  wife,  children,  and  mother,  left  the  Tagus  for 
Brazil  on  November  29,  1807,  and  the  colony  at  once 
felt  the  benefit  of  the  royal  presence.  The  disabilities 
of  Brazil  under  the  Portuguese  colonial  system  have 
been  thus  described  : I  "  All  intercourse  and  commerce 
between  Brazil  and  foreign  nations  were  prohibited. 
The  vessels  of  allies  were  occasionally  permitted  to 
visit  certain  ports  ;  but  the  crews  were  only  allowed 
to  land  under  supervision.  All  manufactures,  except 
that  of  sugar,  were  forbidden  ;  and  the  Crown  drew 
vast  revenues  from  the  tithes,  which  under  a  Papal 
Bull  it  had  appropriated,  and  from  the  royalties  of 
the  gold  and  silver  mines.  With  the  arrival  of  the 
Prince  Regent  and  the  establishment  of  the  seat  of 
government  at  Rio,  all  this  was  abruptly  changed.  A 
royal  decree  of  January  28,  1808,  threw  open  all  the 
ports  of  Brazil  to  the  commerce  of  all  friendly  nations. 
Industries  were  freed  from  all  restrictions  ;  and  the 
exploration  of  the  interior  was  encouraged.  Supreme 
tribunals  were  created  ;  and  a  National  Bank,  a  Royal 
Printing  Press,  a  Military  Academy,  and  a  Medical 
School  were  established.  These  reforms  were  in  no 
small  measure  due  to  British  influence,  which  was 
dominant  in  the  Portuguese  Court ;  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  concession  of  freedom  of  trade 
was  highly  advantageous  to  British  commerce." 
1  Cambridge  Modern  History,  x.  311. 


BRAZIL  121 

At  this  time  Brazil  had  three  million  inhabitants, 
of  whom  one-third  were  negro  slaves.  Dom  John 
liked  Rio  and  set  up  an  extravagant  Court  in  his  new 
home,  nor  did  he  return  to  Portugal  at  the  end  of  the 
war,  but  declared  Brazil  a  kingdom,  much  to  the  dis- 
satisfaction of  the  Portuguese.  In  i8i6the  mad  queen, 
his  mother,  died,  and  he  thus  became  John  VI. 

Signs  of  the  revolutionary  spirit  began  to  show 
themselves,  but  the  King  had  good  troops  and  easily 
suppressed  the  outbreaks.  In  1820  revolutionary 
troubles  broke  out  in  Portugal,  and  on  February  26, 
1821,  the  Brazilians  took  up  arms  to  secure  a  constitu- 
tion. King  John  nominated  his  son  Pedro  as  Regent 
and  departed  to  Portugal.  Towards  the  end  of  the  next 
year  Brazil  declared  itself  independent  and  Pedro  I 
became  the  first  Emperor.  It  may  be  added  that  he 
had  not  a  shadow  of  right  to  any  such  title,  for  he 
himself  was  a  minor  king,  and  he  succeeded  to  no 
empire,  but  to  a  congeries  of  plantations. 

Some  fighting  was  required  to  expel  the  Portuguese 
loyalists  and  troops,  but  the  Brazilians,  aided  by  Lord 
Cochrane,  easily  accomplished  it.  The  new  Emperor 
soon  lost  his  popularity,  and  in  1831  abdicated  and 
went  to  Europe,  leaving  his  young  son  to  become 
Pedro  II.  Though  more  fortunate  than  her  neigh- 
bours, Brazil  had  been  suffering  various  foreign  and 
domestic  troubles,  and  there  was  talk  of  a  Republic, 
but  in  1840  the  majority  of  the  youthful  Emperor  was 
proclaimed,  and  Dom  Pedro  II,  as  he  is  always  called, 
began  a  long  and  not  unprosperous  reign. 

The  country  gradually  began  to  flourish,  and  the 
cultivation  of  coffee  was  greatly  extended.  But  in 
1850  the  terrible  yellow  fever  began  its  ravages,  and 
this  scourge  helped  to  reconcile  the  people  to  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  for  it  was  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  imported  Africans. 


122       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

At  this  time  the  Marquis  of  Parana  ruled  well  and 
developed  the  material  resources  of  the  country,  but 
in  1856  a  commercial  crisis  occurred.  Brazil  had  con- 
ferred a  great  benefit  upon  Argentina  in  ridding  her 
of  the  tyrant  Rosas,  and  later  she  was  called  upon  to  do 
a  similar  service  for  Paraguay.  This  led  to  a  serious 
war,  which  checked  her  prosperity.  It  lasted  from 
1865  to  1870,  and  will  be  described  in  the  history  of 
Paraguay.  The  chief  honours  were  won  by  Brazil, 
for  Marshal  Caxias  showed  great  military  skill,  and 
General  Camara  had  the  honour  of  destroying  one  of 
those  "  despicable  tyrants  "  against  whom  Bolivar  had 
warned  posterity. 

For  many  years  Brazil's  history  was  uneventful,  and 
although  affairs  went  not  unprosperously,  discontent 
was  gathering,  and  unfortunately  the  Emperor's  best 
act  contributed  to  his  unpopularity  far  more  than  any 
of  the  unwise  proceedings  of  his  Ministers.  The  slave 
trade  had  been  abolished,  but,  although  diminished, 
slavery  remained.  In  1856  the  slaves  of  Brazil  num- 
bered two  and  a  half  millions  ;  in  1873  they  had  fallen 
to  a  little  over  one  and  a  half  millions.  The  Emperor's 
health  declined,  and  from  time  to  time  his  daughter 
Isabel  acted  as  Regent.  Her  position  was  very  dim- 
cult,  for  she  earnestly  desired  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
but  the  rich  slave-owning  classes,  who  would  lose  by 
abolition,  were  the  main  support  of  the  throne.  Never- 
theless, she  bravely  encouraged  the  reform,  and  in 
1888  signed  the  law  of  abolition.  The  next  year  the 
Empire  was  at  an  end. 

Republican  doctrines  had  made  headway  in  the 
army,  and  the  class  that  supported  the  Emperor  had 
been  alienated.  In  November,  1889,  the  revolution 
came  about  without  a  blow,  and  a  Republic  was  pro- 
claimed. On  November  i6th  the  Emperor  and  his 
family  were  placed  upon  a  ship  and  sent  to  Europe. 


BRAZIL  123 

The  downfall  of  the  Empire  was  a  great  blow  to 
Brazil.  Up  to  1889  she  was  far  ahead  of  the  other 
South  American  nations  in  prosperity  and  efficiency 
of  administration.  Since  then  she  has  relatively  retro- 
graded and  has  been  outstripped  by  Argentina.  The 
subsequent  history  has  not  presented  many  features  of 
importance.  There  was  a  rebellion  in  1894  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fighting.  Dr.  Prudente  de  Moraes 
Barros  became  President  and  attempted  to  reform  the 
administration,  which  had  fallen  into  confusion  and 
corruption  since  the  deposition  of  Dom  Pedro  II. 
His  period  of  office  was  full  of  trouble.  A  dangerous 
insurrection  was  raised  by  a  fanatic  named  Consel- 
heiro  which  required  a  large  army  to  suppress,  and 
soon  afterwards  a  determined  attempt  was  made  to 
assassinate  the  President.  However,  Moraes  suc- 
ceeded in  restoring  peace  to  Brazil,  and  under  his 
successor,  Dr.  Campos  Salles,  strenuous  efforts  were 
made  to  reorganize  the  finances  and  improve  Brazilian 
credit — a  task  which  was  carried  on  by  Dr.  Rodrigues 
Alves,  who  succeeded  in  1902.  By  this  time  tolerable 
tranquillity  had  been  restored  to  Brazil,  although  she 
has  never  regained  her  old  prosperity.  Dr.  Affonso 
Penna,  who  became  President  in  1906,  died  in 
1909.  The  next  year  Marshal  Hermes  da  Fonseca 
was  elected  without  serious  trouble.  There  have 
since  been  several  small  rebellions  and  mutinies. 

The  state  of  Brazil  cannot  be  considered  satisfactory. 
Her  economic  troubles  are  severe,  and  these  are  partly 
due  to  political  defects.  The  Brazilians  form  one  of 
many  instances  of  a  people  who  have  obtained  par- 
liamentary government  long  before  they  were  fitted 
for  it,  and  thus  they  experience  all  its  evils  and  few 
of  its  advantages.  Out  of  the  numbers  qualified  to 
vote  very  few  will  take  the  trouble  to  exercise  the 
franchise,  and  those  who  do  vote  yield  to  pressure 


124       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

rather  than  to  their  political  convictions.  The  results 
of  the  elections,  therefore,  are  determined  by  small 
political  cliques,  which  misgovern  the  country  without 
let  or  hindrance. 

THE  CONSTITUTION 

It  would  be  tedious  to  give  the  details  of  the  con- 
stitution of  each  South  American  Republic  in  turn, 
and  therefore  the  following  description  of  the  Brazilian 
constitution  may  serve  as  a  type.  The  form  of  govern- 
ment is  Federal ;  it  is  based  upon  the  union  of  a  number 
of  States,  and  the  official  designation,  therefore,  is  the 
United  States  of  Brazil.  The  powers  of  the  Union,  as 
it  is  called,  are  strictly  discriminated  from  those  of  the 
States.  It  may  not  interfere  in  State  matters  except  :— 

(1)  To  repel  foreign  invasion,  or  the  invasion  of 

one  State  by  another  ; 

(2)  To  maintain  the  Federal  Republican  form  of 

government ; 

(3)  To  re-establish  order  and  tranquillity  in  the 

States    at    the    request    of    the    respective 
Governments  ; 

(4)  To   assure   the   execution   of    the    laws    and 

Federal  decrees. 

The  Union,  of  course,  reserves  the  usual  Federal 
powers,  i.e.  it  imposes  duties  on  foreign  imports,  and 
controls  the  stamp  duties  and  the  posts  and  telegraphs. 
It  alone  may  create  banks  of  emission  and  create  and 
maintain  customs-houses.  The  States  have  consider- 
able powers  of  imposing  duties  upon  articles  coming 
from  other  States,  and  the  trade  and  progress  of  Brazil 
are  hampered  in  consequence. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  Congress,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  President  of  the  Republic,  Con- 


BRAZIL  125 

gress  consists  of  two  bodies,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  the  Senate.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected 
by  direct  suffrage  and  must  not  exceed  one  member 
for  every  70,000  inhabitants.  Members  of  the  Senate 
must  be  over  35  years  of  age,  and  are  elected  for 
nine  years.  Three  Senators  sit  for  each  State  and 
three  for  the  Federal  District.  The  Senate  has  the 
power  to  try  and  sentence  the  President  and  other 
Federal  officers.  The  President  presides  over  its 
deliberations. 

The  President  is  head  of  the  Executive  and  has  very 
large  powers,  among  which  is  that  of  choosing  and 
dismissing  all  Cabinet  Ministers.  His  term  of  office 
is  four  years,  and  he  is  elected  by  direct  suffrage. 
Cabinet  Ministers  may  not  sit  in  Congress.  There 
are  the  following  portfolios :  (i)  Public  Works, 
Agriculture,  and  Industry  ;  (2)  War ;  (3)  Marine ; 
(4)  Foreign  Affairs ;  (5)  Interior  ;  (6)  Finance. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  Union  rests  in  a  Federal 
Supreme  Court  and  in  as  many  lower  Federal  Courts 
as  Congress  may  create.  The  judges  are  appointed 
by  the  President  and  hold  office  for  life.  The  Federal 
Supreme  Court  has  the  duty  of  trying  the  President 
and  Cabinet  Ministers  for  crimes  against  the  Republic 
or  common  crimes. 

Citizens  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  shall  be  electors. 
Included  in  the  constitution  is  a  Declaration  of  Rights, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  most  important  clauses : — 

"  Before  law  all  persons  are  equal.  The  Republic 
does  not  recognize  privileges  of  birth,  or  titles  of 
nobility,  and  abolishes  all  existing  honorary  orders, 
with  all  their  prerogatives  and  decorations,  as  well 
as  all  hereditary  titles  and  that  of  councillor. 

"All  persons  and  religious  corporations  may  exer- 
cise publicly  and  freely  the  right  of  worship,  and  may 


126       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

associate  themselves  for  that  purpose  and  acquire 
property,  with  due  observance  of  the  provisions  of 
common  law. 

"The  Republic  recognizes  civil  marriage  only,  the 
celebration  of  which  shall  be  gratuitous. 

"The  instruction  given  at  public  institutions  shall 
be  secular. 

"  The  death  penalty  is  abolished,  except  in  case  of 
martial  law  in  time  of  war. 

"  The  institution  of  trial  by  jury  is  maintained." 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  Brazilian  constitution  is 
modelled  upon  that  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
which  is,  to  a  large  extent,  the  model  for  other  South 
American  Republics,  and  their  constitutions  hence- 
forth will  only  receive  notice  when  they  differ  in 
some  important  point  from  the  Brazilian,  or  otherwise 
present  some  feature  of  special  interest. 

PERNAMBUCO 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — This  is  the  first  South  American  port  at 
which  the  steamers  from  Europe  touch.  The  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Company  calls  here,  but  the  Pacific  Steam 
Navigation  Company  often  omits  Pernambuco.  The  distance 
to  Bahia  is  390  miles  and  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  1,125.  The  lines 
and  fares  are  given  in  the  Introduction.  There  is  a  fairly 
frequent  coasting  service  north  and  south,  provided  by  the 
Lloyd- Brazileiro,  the  Companhia  Pernambucana,  and  others  ; 
but  these  lines  are  not  recommended.  The  vessels  go  as  far 
north  as  Manaos  and  as  far.  south  as  Buenos  Aires,  and  also 
proceed  up  the  Plate  rivers  as  far  as  Asuncion.  There  is 
also  a  service  to  New  York.  More  details  about  the  shipping 
lines  of  Brazil  will  be  given  under  the  head  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  good  connexion  with  the  neighbouring 
towns  through  the  Great  Western  Railway.  To  the  north 
Parahyba  and  Natal  may  be  reached,  and  to  the  south 
Natal. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Moderno,  Empreza  de  Banhos  do  Mar,  on  the 


BRAZIL  127 

Reef ;    Grande   Hotel  Commercial,    Sul    Americano.     The 

charges  range  from  135.  to  £i  a  day. 
BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  H.  E.  Dickie. 
BANKS — London  and  River  Plate  Bank ;   London  and  Brazilian 

Bank. 
NEWSPAPERS — 0  Jornal  do  Recife,  Correio  de  Recife,  A  Provincia. 

Pernambuco,  or  Recife,  was  from  the  first  an  im- 
portant town  :  allusion  has  already  been  made  to  its 
history.  It  derives  its  alternative  name  from  the 
reef,  which  at  the  same  time  affords  a  harbour  and 
impedes  navigation,  as,  unfortunately,  only  ships  draw- 
ing 23  feet  of  water  can  enter  the  harbour.  The 
landing  has  to  be  made  by  small  boats.  Pernambuco, 
which  has  a  population  estimated  at  200,000,  is 
divided  into  three  parts — Recife,  San  Antonio,  and 
Boa  Vista,  the  first  two  of  which  are  connected  by 
handsome  bridges.  Recife  is  the  business  part,  San 
Antonio  is  inhabited  by  the  poorer  class,  and  Boa 
Vista  is  the  fashionable  quarter.  Pernambuco  is  pic- 
turesque, but  the  streets  are  dirty  and  malodorous 
and  the  population  is  largely  negro  ;  it  is  not  likely 
that  a  tourist  will  wish  to  make  a  stay  here.  Sugar 
and  cotton  and  hides  are  the  principal  export.  It  is 
the  sixth  port  of  Brazil.  In  1911  its  imports  were 
53,952,804  milreis  and  the  exports  19,445,822. 

BAHIA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — These  are  practically  as  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
which  see.  The  ships  stand  out  at  some  distance  and 
passengers  are  landed  in  boats.  Bahia  is  390  miles  from 
Pernambuco  and  735  from  Rio. 

RAILWAYS — On  the  land  side  Bahia  is  isolated  to  this  extent, 
that  she  has  no  railway  communication  with  the  great 
neighbouring  towns  of  Pernambuco  to  the  north  or  Rio 
to  the  south.  The  Bahia  and  San  Francisco  and  the  San 
Francisco  Railways  have  a  line  running  about  350  miles 
north  to  Joazeiro.  The  Central  of  Bahia  Railway  gives 
communication  to  several  towns. 


128       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

HOTELS— Hotel  Sul  Americano,  Rua  S.  Pedro;  Grande  Hotel 
Paris,  Praca  Castro  Alves,  with  French  and  Portuguese 
cooking.  These,  the  two  best  houses  in  the  town,  charge 
from  los.  to  135.  a  day.  Similar  is  the  charge  of  several 
boarding-houses,  with  European  cooking,  which  are  well 
situated  in  the  district  of  Victoria.  They,  however,  give 
monthly  terms  at  about  £13  53.  a  month.  The  Consul 
reports  that  "houses  continue  scarce  and  dear,  and  the 
hotel  accommodation  is  poor." 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Consul,  E.  M.de  Garston.  Vice-Consul,  Frank 
Stevenson. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  British  Bank  of  South 
America,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank. 

NEWSPAPERS — Diario  da  Bahia,  A  Bahia,  Diario  de  Notidas. 

Bahia,  the  capital  of  the  State,  is  a  large  town  and 
port  with  about  300,000  inhabitants.  It  stands  on 
the  great  bay  of  All  Saints,  which  is  about  20 
miles  long  and  25  miles  broad.  Though  extremely 
picturesque,  it  is  eclipsed  by  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  has 
been  comparatively  neglected  by  the  pens  of  descrip- 
tive writers.  Yet  the  bay  is  of  extreme  beauty  and 
is  much  more  open  than  that  of  Rio.  Darwin  wrote 
with  enthusiasm  of  the  luxuriant  vegetation  which 
grew  upon  its  shores.  It  is  well  sheltered  and  is 
being  further  improved.  In  1911  the  imports  were 
valued  at  ^3,989,819  and  the  exports  (for  1912)  at 
.£5,844,758.  The  principal  exports  are  cocoa,  tobacco, 
coffee,  sugar  and  hides.  In  1912,  533  vessels,  with 
a  tonnage  of  1,834,314,  entered  the  port;  considerably 
more  than  half  of  this  was  British.  Allusion  has  been 
made  to  this  ancient  city  in  the  historical  section. 
Early  in  1912  there  were  serious  disturbances  and  the 
city  was  bombarded  by  the  Federal  army.  The  Palace 
of  the  Governor  and  the  State  Library  were  burnt. 
-On  landing,  the  visitor  will  probably  feel  disappoint- 
ment, for  the  business  part  of  the  town  lies  along 
the  water  edge,  and  the  streets  are  narrow,  ill-paved, 


BRAZIL  129 

and  evil-smelling.  But  behind  lies  a  steep  ridge  of 
moderate  height,  which  is  mounted  by  means  of  a 
useful  lift.  Here  are  good  houses,  wide  streets,  and 
pleasant  gardens,  which  are  refreshed  by  the  sea 
breezes.  There  is  said  to  be  one  church  in  Bahia 
for  every  day  in  the  year.  Some  of  them  have  hand- 
some and  costly  interiors. 

Negroes  abound  in  Bahia.  There  are  many  handsome 
public  buildings  and  the  town  and  its  surroundings 
are  picturesque,  but  it  is  not  a  place  to  be  recommended 
for  a  long  stay.  The  mean  temperature  is  about  80° 
Fahr.  and  the  humidity  of  the  air  makes  the  heat  very 
oppressive.  The  rainfall  is  about  48  inches  annually. 
Yellow  fever  and  bubonic  plague  frequently  visit  the 
town,  and  smallpox,  which  is  endemic,  causes  great 
havoc  among  the  poorer  classes.  September  and 
October  are  the  best  months  for  a  visit ;  in  the  tour 
mapped  out  in  this  book,  January  is  given,  and  it 
would  be  unwise  to  alter  the  arrangement  for  a  place 
of  comparatively  small  importance  ;  the  January  climate 
is  not  much  worse  than  the  average.  Bahia  has  a 
number  of  cotton-mills  and  miscellaneous  manufac- 
tures. There  is  a  very  good  service  of  electric  cars. 
An  interesting  excursion  might  be  made  to  the  diamond- 
mines,  but  these  are  somewhat  inaccessible  and  would 
require  several  weeks  which  would  be  spent  in  rough 
travel.  Those  who  wish  for  information  about  the 
interior  of  Bahia  and  other  parts  of  Brazil  should  read 
Sir  Richard  Burton's  admirable  book,  which  describes 
conditions  which  have  hardly  been  modified  by  the 
puny  railway  enterprises  of  Bahia. 

RIO   DE  JANEIRO 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— The  steamers  and  passage  rates  of  the  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  and  various  other  lines,  English  and  foreign, 
K 


130       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

have  been  dealt  with  in  the  Introduction.  The  Italian  Lloyd 
are  among  the  best  and  fastest  of  the  steamers.  The  ships 
of  the  New  Zealand  Shipping  Company  and  the  Shaw  Savill 
call  here  on  their  way  home  from  New  Zealand.  The  Lloyd- 
Brasileiro  and  Lage  Brothers,  with  several  others,  afford  a 
coasting  service.  Both  the  Lamport  and  Holt  and  the  Lloyd- 
Brasileiro  give  a  service  to  the  United  States.  The  distance  to 
Bahia  is  735  miles,  to  Pernambuco  1,125,  t°  Santos  199,  to 
Montevideo  1,180,  to  Buenos  Aires  1,305,  to  Southampton 
5,034,  to  Hamburg  5,519,  to  Genoa  5,040,  and  to  New 
York  4,748. 

RAILWAYS — Rio  has  a  good  railway  service.  It  has  communica- 
cation  with  Victoria,  Espirito  Santo,  and  Ouro  Preta  in  the 
north,  and  in  the  south  with  Sao  Paulo  and  Southern  Brazil 
generally. 

HOTELS— The  two  best  hotels  in  Rio  are  the  Hotel  dos  Estran- 
geiros,  Praca  Jose  de  Alvear,  and  the  Hotel  Internacional, 
which  is  situated  at  some  distance  in  the  suburbs.  Their 
terms  are  from  ^i  a  day  upwards.  The  Avenida  and  the 
Hotel  do  Concordo  em  Paineiras  may  also  be  mentioned. 
The  Restaurante  Barros,  98,  Rua  da  Alfandeza,  is  a  good 
restaurant. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — The  post  of  British  Minister  is  vacant.  Consul- 
General,  D.  R.  O'Sullivan-Beare.  Vice-Consuls,  E.  Hambloch, 
C.  G.  Pullen. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  British  Bank  of  South  America, 
London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  Banco  Espanol  del  Rio  de  la 
Plata. 

NEWSPAPERS — Jornal  do  Commercio.  Jornal  do  Brazil,  0  Imperial, 
Geseta  do  Notacis,  Le  Bresil,  A  Noticia  (evening).  The 
Jornal  do  Commercio  is  one  of  the  best  newspapers  in  the 
world.  It  is  conducted  by  the  able  and  independent  Senhor 
Jose  Carlos  Rodrigues.  LEtoile  du  Sud  is  a  French  weekly. 
The  Brazilian  Review  is  an  excellent  weekly,  published  in 
English. 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH— This  is  in  the  Rua  Evaresta  da  Vega. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital  and  chief  seaport  of 
Brazil,  is  the  second  largest  city  in  South  America, 
with  a  population  of  about  870,000.  Its  history  has 
been  referred  to  in  the  historical  section.  It  is  an 
extremely  beautiful  city.  The  charms  of  Rio  Bay  have 


BRAZIL  131 

been  celebrated,  perhaps  with  some  exaggeration,  by 
every  traveller  who  has  visited  it ;  and  though  it  cannot 
claim  to  be  the  loveliest  of  sea  approaches,  the  com- 
bination of  blue  water,  rugged  hills,  and  tropical 
vegetation  makes  the  harbour  a  very  lovely  place.  It 
has  been  thus  described  by  Sir  Richard  Burton  :  "  'Rio 
Bay,'  like  all  the  beautiful  sisterhood,  from  Cornish 
'  Mullions '  westward  to  the  Bay  of  Naples,  must  be 
seen  in  '  war-paint.'  Most  charming  is  she  when  sitting 
under  her  rich  ethereal  canopy,  whilst  a  varnish  of 
diaphanous  atmosphere  tempers  the  distance  to  soft 
and  exquisite  loveliness  ;  when  the  robing  blue  is 
perfect  brilliant  blue,  when  the  browns  are  dashed 
with  pink  and  purple,  and  when  the  national  colours 
suggest  themselves  :  green,  vivid  as  the  emerald,  and 
yellow,  bright  as  burnished  gold.  Then  the  streams 
are  silver,  then  the  scaurs  are  marked  orange  and 
vermilion  as  they  stand  straightly  out  from  the  snowy 
sand  or  the  embedding  forest,  then  the  passing  clouds 
form  floating  islets  as  their  shadows  walk  over  the 
waters  of  the  inner  sea,  so  purely  green.  Then  the 
peasant's  whitewashed  hut  of  tile  and  '  wattle  and  dab/ 
rising  from  the  strand  of  snowy  sand,  becomes  opal 
and  garnet  in  the  floods  of  light  which  suggest  nothing 
but  a  perpetual  springtide.  And  every  hour  has 
its  own  spell.  There  is  sublimity  in  the  morning 
mists  rolling  far  away  over  headland  brow  and 
heaving  ocean ;  there  is  grandeur,  loveliness,  and 
splendour  in  the  sparkling  of  the  waves  under  the 
noonday  sun,  when  the  breeze  is  laden  with  the 
perfume  of  a  thousand  flowers  ;  and  there  is  inex- 
pressible repose  and  grace  in  the  shades  of  vinous 
purple  which  evening  sheds  over  the  same."  This 
beautiful  city  was  not  long  ago  a  very  undesirable 
place  of  residence,  for  yellow  fever  carried  off  a  great 
number  of  victims.  The  deaths  from  the  scourge  were — 


132       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

1900 345        1902 984 

1901 299        1903 584 

Between  1850  and  1903  Rio  had  lost  58,635  lives  to 
yellow  fever.  About  this  time  energetic  sanitary  mea- 
sures were  taken  and  vigorous  war  was  waged  upon 
mosquitoes,  with  such  excellent  results  that  yellow  fever 
has  been  completely  banished  from  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
and  the  official  statistics  claim  that  it  is  an  extraordi- 
narily healthy  town.  However  this  may  be,  the  sanitary 
condition  has  undoubtedly  been  greatly  improved. 
This  improvement  is  partly  due  to  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city.  Up  to  very  recent  years  Rio  was  a  meanly 
built  town  with  dark  and  narrow  streets.  The  "  open- 
ing into  wider  parts  "  began  at  about  the  same  time  as 
the  sanitation,  being  carried  out  in  1903  and  the  years 
following.  The  most  splendid  feature  is  the  Avenida 
Central,  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  which  runs 
along  the  northern  extremity  through  the  old  town, 
from  sea  to  sea,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  handsomest  street 
in  South  America.  Here  are  most  of  the  finest 
public  buildings  and  many  shops  and  superb  offices. 
It  is  crossed  at  right  angles  by  the  ancient  Rua  Ouvidor, 
still  the  best  shopping  centre.  Another  magnificent 
promenade  is  the  Avenida  Beira  Mar,  which  runs 
southward  along  the  bay  for  more  than  three  miles, 
wandering  between  blue  water  and  gay  flower-gardens. 
The  Jardim  Botanico,  which  was  established  in  1808,  is 
one  of  the  chief  sights  of  Rio.  It  occupies  an  area  of 
2,000  acres  and  is  traversed  by  a  magnificent  avenue  of 
palms.  The  arrangements  for  the  study  of  botany  are 
very  complete  and  the  garden  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world.  Very  beautiful  are  the  various  public  gardens, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Praga  da  Repub- 
lica,  the  Praga  Duke  de  Caxias,  and  the  Passeio  Publico. 
Like  all  other  South  Americans,  the  Brazilians  are  fond 


BRAZIL  133 

of  statues.  In  the  Praia  da  Gloria  may  be  seen  the 
statue  of  the  Viscount  of  Rio  Branco,  which  was 
erected  to  commemorate  the  fourth  centenary  of  the 
discovery  of  Brazil.  In  the  Praca  Tiridentes  there 
stands  an  equestrian  figure  of  Dom  Pedro.  There  is 
also  a  statue  of  General  Osorio,  who  gained  distinction 
in  the  war  with  Paraguay,  and  many  more.  The  public 
buildings  of  the  capital  are  mostly  modern.  The  City 
Palace,  which  dates  from  1743,  is  now  the  Telegraph 
Office.  The  Palace,  occupied  by  the  Emperor,  at  Sao 
Christovao,  is  now  a  National  Museum,  but  the  best 
collection  is  at  the  National  Museum  in  the  Quinta  da 
Boa  Vista,  which  has  especially  fine  collections  of 
natural  history  specimens  and  fossils.  Here  is  the 
great  meteoric  stone,  Bendigo,  which  was  discovered 
in  1781,  in  the  State  of  Bahia.  The  Cattete  Palace,  now 
occupied  by  the  President,  is  one  of  the  older  buildings. 
This  list  is  almost  exhausted  with  the  Palacete  Itamaratz, 
the  official  residence  of  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
a  pleasant  building  whose  plainness  contrasts  with  the 
florid  appearance  of  the  modern  buildings.  These  are 
numerous,  and  the  Municipal  Theatre  is  one  of  the 
most  handsome.  It  is  situated  in  the  Avenida  Central 
and  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  Opera  House  in 
Paris.  Here  also  are  the  National  Library,  with  over 
200,000  books,  and  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts.  The  Mint 
is  an  extremely  imposing  building.  Among  the  hand- 
somest of  the  edifices  are  the  newspaper  and  insurance 
offices,  and  Rio,  with  its  combination  of  the  old  and 
the  new,  has  an  interesting  and  picturesque  appearance, 
which  is  greatly  enhanced  by  its  beautiful  environs. 

Beautiful  as  Rio  is,  the  traveller  will  not,  in  all  prob- 
ability, desire  to  make  a  long  stay  here.  The  climate  is 
hot,  humid  and  enervating;  the  mean  temperature  is 
74°  Fahr.  The  least  oppressive  time  is  between  April 
and  November,  but  the  climate  is  rendered  much  more 


134       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

trying  by  the  practical  absence  of  seasons ;  the  tempera- 
ture remains  at  a  high  level,  night  and  day,  all  the  year 
round.  The  humidity  which  greatly  aggravates  the 
heat  is  caused  by  the  Atlantic  trade  winds,  which  blow 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Further,  Rio  is  an 
extremely  expensive  town.  A  recent  Consular  Report 
says  :  "  The  cost  of  living  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  may,  at  a 
fair  estimate,  be  considered  about  three  times  as  expen- 
sive as  in  Europe."  In  Buenos  Aires  and  Santiago  the 
prices  are  probably  but  little  lower  ;  there,  however, 
the  climate  is  pleasant  and  luxuries,  or  what  would 
in  Europe  be  called  necessaries,  can  be  forgone  with 
less  discomfort.  The  traveller  is  recommended  to  make 
his  way  to  Sao  Paulo,  before  he  begins  to  feel  the 
effects  of  the  climate  of  Rio. 

The  town  has  an  extremely  good  service  of-  electric 
tramcars,  which  is  provided  by  the  Light  and  Power 
Company.  The  beautiful  environs,  as  well  as  Rio 
itself,  can  thus  be  seen  easily  and  cheaply  ;  the  hired 
cabs  are  wretched.  All  tourists  go  to  the  Jardim 
Botanico,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Gavea  and  Cor- 
covado.  The  distance  is  about  6  miles  and  the 
return  fare  about  is.  Another  indispensable  excur- 
sion is  to  Corcovado  itself,  which  is  made  by  taking 
the  little  rack  railway  from  Cosme  Velho.  There  are 
seven  trains  a  day  and  the  return  fare  is  43.  The 
view  from  the  summit,  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
magnificent.  Not  less  delightful  is  a  visit  to  Tijuca, 
which  lies  about  7  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  city. 

It  is  reached  by  tram,  supplemented  by  a  funicular 
railway  up  the  mountain.  The  little  town  (Hotel 
Tijuca),  a  favourite  summer  resort,  is  1,200  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  while  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is 
about  3,300  feet.  There  is  a  fine  waterfall.  The 
return  fare  is  about  is.  9d. 

The  number  of  churches  in  Rio  is  large,  but  those 


BRAZIL  135 

which  possess  merit  are  few.  The  largest  and  best  is 
the  Church  of  the  Candelaria,  with  two  very  graceful 
towers  and  a  rich  interior.  The  people  of  Brazil  are, 
for  the  most  part,  deeply  religious. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  English,  French  and 
Germans  in  Rio,  and  besides  many  handsome  native 
clubs,  each  body  of  aliens  has  several  clubs  of  its  own. 
The  outdoor  amusements  cannot  compare  with  those 
of  Buenos  Aires.  Racing  is  popular,  but  is  on  a 
smaller  scale  than  in  Argentina.  There  is  a  good 
race-course. 

Besides  being  the  seat  of  the  Federal  Government, 
Rio  has  immense  commercial  importance.  In  1911 
the  imports  were  280,384,706  milreis  and  the  exports 
121,819,726  milreis.  Rio  is  one  of  the  best  harbours 
in  the  world.  Its  industries  are  considerable.  Cotton 
is  the  principal,  and  Rio  has  twenty-four  factories. 
In  all,  there  are  said  to  be  670  large  manufacturing 
establishments  in  Rio,  which  include  tobacco,  matches, 
boots  and  shoes,  candles  and  beer. 

Hardly  any  of  these  industries  could  exist  but  for 
an  extravagant  system  of  Protection,  .which  imposes  a 
very  heavy  burden  upon  the  poor  and  makes,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  Rio  de  Janeiro  a  place  to  be  avoided 
by  the  tourist  with  moderate  means.  Even  French 
observers,  who  are  accustomed  to  Protection  and 
approve  it  in  moderation,  point  out  that  this  excessive 
system  of  duties  is  beneficial  to  no  one  but  the 
Brazilian  manufacturers.  There  is  a  strong  minority 
in  Brazil  that  favours  a  more  liberal  fiscal  system. 

Like  all  Latin  Americans,  the  Brazilians  love  poetry. 
The  principal  Brazilian  poets  are  Antonio  Gonzaga, 
elsewhere  noticed,  and  Antonio  Gon9alves  Dias,  a 
native  of  the  State  of  Maranhao,  who  was  born  in 
1824,  and  perished  by  shipwreck  on  the  homeward 
voyage  from  Portugal  in  1864.  His  CanQdo  do  Exilio 


136       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

("  Minha  terra  tern  palmeiras ")  is  a  noble  poem. 
There  are  several  other  poets  of  repute,  but  Gon£alves 
Dias  surpasses  all  of  the  nineteenth  century.  There 
are  two  outstanding  novelists,  Jose  de  Alencar  (1829- 
77),  famous  for  Guaranz,  and  Joaquim  de  Macedo, 
for  La  Brunette.  A  useful  historian  of  Brazil  was 
Varnhagen,  Viscount  of  Porto-Seguro.  Though  the 
mass  of  Brazilians  are  sunk  in  ignorance,  there  is  a 
leaven  of  highly  cultivated  persons  in  the  larger  towns, 
and  their  newspaper  press  is,  relatively  at  any  rate, 
much  better  than  our  own.  There  are  no  Universities 
in  Brazil,  but  there  are  twenty-five  Faculties  that 
confer  degrees. 

All  visitors  to  Rio  make  the  journey  to  Petropolis. 
This  little  town  is  situated  at  a  distance  of  28  miles 
from  the  capital  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  and 
has  a  population  of  40,000.  The  railway  journey 
occupies  nearly  2  hours  and  the  return  fare  is 
us.  There  are  fine  views.  The  place  has  several 
hotels,  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  (German),  Hotel  Europa 
(Portuguese),  and  the  Modern  (Italian).  It  was 
founded  in  1845  by  a  band  of  Germans  who  intended 
it  to  be  an  agricultural  settlement,  but  the  conveni- 
ence of  its  position  made  it  a  kind  of  American  Simla, 
and  here  reside  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the 
foreign  diplomatists.  Petropolis  has  received  much 
praise  from  travellers,  who  were  no  doubt  grateful 
for  the  comparative  coolness  of  the  climate,  but  it  is 
rather  an  untidy  place,  and  the  scenery  is  disappoint- 
ing. There  are,  however,  pleasant  gardens.  Besides 
being  a  fashionable  resort,  Petropolis  is  an  industrial 
town  with  several  large  cotton-mills  and  breweries. 
One  day  is  quite  enough  to  devote  to  Petropolis. 

The   traveller   will   leave    Rio    de    Janeiro   without 


BRAZIL  137 

regret,  and  will  take  one  of  the  crazy  cabs  and  make 
his  way  to  the  Central  station,  whence  the  train  will 
take  him  to  Sao  Paulo  in  about  twelve  hours. 


SAO  PAULO 

RAILWAYS — Sao  Paulo  promises  to  be  the  most  important  railway 
centre  in  all  Brazil.  The  distance  from  the  capital  is  300 
miles  and  the  return  fare,  first  class,  is  about  £3  153.  The 
journey  is  made  by  the  Central  Brazilian  Railway.  Sao 
Paulo  is  distant  45  miles  from  its  port,  Santos,  and  the  return 
fare,  first  class,  is  about  175.  The  journey  is  made  by  the 
Sao  Paulo  Railway.  There  is  now  railway  connexion 
between  Sao  Paulo  and  Montevideo,  but  the  journey  is  very 
long  and  tedious,  and  to  most  people  the  sea  voyage  would 
be  preferable. 

HOTELS— Sportsman,  Rua  Direita  (good  table) ;  Majestic,  Rua 
Sao  Bento  ;  Grand,  Rua  Sao  Bento.  The  charges  are  from 
153.  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Consul,  G.  G.  F.  Atlee.  Vice-Consul,  C.  W 
Miller. 

BANKS— London  and  River  Plate,  British  Bank  of  South 
America,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  Banco  Espafiol 
del  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

NFAVSPAPERS — O  Estado  de  Sao  Paulo,  A  Platea,  A  Tribuna,  Sao 
Paulo,  Deutsche  Zettung,  Vox  de  Espana. 

Sao  Paulo  is  a  large  and  very  handsome  city  with 
a  population  of  410,702.  It  stands  2,000  feet  above 
the  sea-level  and  has  a  mild  and  pleasant  climate. 
The  busy  part  is  the  Rua  Direita,  which  is  joined  by 
the  Rua  Sao  Bento  and  the  Rua  Quinze  de  Novembro. 
The  outskirts  of  the  city  are  traversed  by  fine  avenues. 
There  is  a  very  good  service  of  electric  tramcars. 
Sao  Paulo  is  the  centre  of  the  coffee  industry,  to  which 
it  owes  all  its  wealth.  The  population  consists  largely 
of  Italians,  who  during  the  last  thirty  years  have  come 
to  the  State  in  enormous  numbers,  and,  although  the 
crisis  in  the  coffee  industry  checked  the  influx,  immi- 
gration is  now  once  more  becoming  large.  In  1912 


138       A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

there  entered  the  State  103,005  persons  as  against 
39,143  who  left  it.  The  State  is  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture, and,  possessing  a  fine  climate,  fertile  soil,  and 
abundance  of  water,  it  is  carried  on  with  great  success. 
Besides  coffee,  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  maize,  beans, 
tobacco  and  fruits  of  every  kind  are  produced.  Only 
4,450,820  acres  of  the  area  (which  is  as  large  as  Italy) 
are  under  cultivation,  and  much  of  it  has  hardly  been 
explored,  but,  with  the  development  of  railways,  it 
will  soon  be  one  of  the  richest  places  on  the  face  of 
the  globe. 

Although  the  English  colony  is  small,  Sao  Paulo 
is  a  pleasant  place  for  a  visit.  There  is  a  small  race- 
course. The  growth  of  the  city  has  been  enormous  ; 
in  1887  the  population  amounted  to  only  47,697.  The 
city  has  been  well  laid  out  and  the  public  gardens  are 
very  beautiful. 

Sao  Paulo  is  now  almost  as  important  a  manu- 
facturing centre  as  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  possesses  31 
cotton,  17  wool,  and  4  jute  factories,  besides  several 
for  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  No  fewer 
than  50,000  persons  are  employed,  and  the  output  is 
about  £15,000,000  yearly. 

The  city  possesses  many  fine  public  buildings,  and, 
though  less  interested  than  Rio  in  literature  and  art, 
it  takes  a  prominent  place  in  education.  The 
Academia  de  Direita  or  Law  School  is  famous,  and 
has  trained  many  statesmen  and  jurists.  There  are 
also  a  Medical  School  and  a  Polytechnic,  and  much 
more  attention  is  bestowed  upon  primary  and  second- 
ary education  than  in  other  parts  of  Brazil.  The 
suburbs  are  very  handsome,  and  their  principal  feature 
is  the  splendid  Avenida  Paulista  ;  the  Jardin  de  Luz 
is  a  beautiful  park.  Among  the  chief  buildings  may 
be  named  the  Government  Palace,  the  Palace  of 
Agriculture,  the  Hospedaria  de  Immigrantes  (a  most 


BRAZIL  139 

useful  institution),  the  Santa  Casa  de  Misericordia, 
which  is  the  chief  hospital,  and  the  Public  Library. 
The  suburb  of  Liberdade  is  picturesque,  and  perhaps 
the  favourite  objective  for  a  walk  or  short  drive  is 
Ypiranga,  an  extremely  fine  monument  erected  in 
1885  to  commemorate  the  proclamation  of  independ- 
ence in  1822.  Here  is  a  good  natural  history  museum. 
The  churches  are  not  remarkable.  A  French  traveller 
calls  Sao  Paulo  "  une  ville  triste  et  sans  distractions," 
and  the  evenings  there  are  certainly  very  quiet.  But 
it  has  an  extremely  healthy  and  pleasant  climate,  and 
for  those  who  are  interested  in  the  industries  there  is 
much  to  see. 

Sao  Paulo  is  by  no  means  the  geographical  centre 
of  Brazil.  Campinas  approximates  nearer  to  that 
position.  This  town  (Hotel  Villela),  which  has  about 
90,000  inhabitants,  lies  65  miles  north-west  of  the  town 
of  Sao  Paulo,  and  at  one  time  was  of  equal  importance. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  coffee  district  and  is  a  hand- 
some town,  but  the  situation  is  unhealthy.  The 
traveller,  however,  is  more  likely  to  turn  his  thoughts 
to  Argentina  and  take  the  short  railway  journey  to 
Santos. 

SANTOS 

RAILWAYS — The  particulars  of  the  journey  between  Santos  and 
the  State  capital  are  given  under  Sao  Paulo.  The  Santos  and 
Sao  Vicente  Railway  is  a  short  electric  line. 

HOTELS — The  Sportsman,  Rua  15  de  Novembro,  60  ;  the  Palace 
Hotel,  Praia  de  Jose.  The  traveller  is  recommended  to  go 
to  Santos  the  day  before  his  boat  sails,  and  thus  avoid 
spending  more  than  one  night  in  the  town. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— R.  A.  Sandall. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank, 
Banco  Espanol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

NEWSPAPER— ,4  Tribuna. 


140       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Santos,  which  has  a  population  of  71,980,  is  a  purely 
commercial  town.  It  was  founded  by  Braz  Cubas  in 
1543,  but  long  made  very  slow  progress,  owing  to  its 
swampy  and  unhealthy  situation.  It  used  to  have  a 
terrible  reputation  for  yellow  fever,  but  of  late  years 
great  improvements  have  been  made,  and  the  port  is 
now  free  from  it.  It  is  a  tolerably  healthy  place  now, 
but  it  has  no  attractions  whatever  except  its  com- 
merce. The  suburbs  are  more  pleasant.  Santos  is  an 
excellent  harbour,  and  the  largest  ships  lie  alongside 
its  quays.  Owing  to  its  immense  exports  of  coffee,  it 
has  far  more  commerce  than  even  Rio  de  Janeiro,  i.e. 
it  is  the  chief  port  of  Brazil.  In  1911  the  imports 
were  280,384,706  milreis,  the  exports  480,899,954. 

It  is  not  very  probable  that  many  travellers  will  wish 
to  visit  Southern  Brazil.  The  climate  is  good,  but  the 
objects  of  interest  are  by  no  means  numerous. 
However,  there  is  a  choice  of  two  routes,  the  easy 
one  by  sea  or  the  more  fatiguing  one  by  land.  The 
latter,  however,  would  have  the  advantage  of  enabling 
the  traveller  to  see  Uruguay  at  a  smaller  cost  of  time 
than  would  be  demanded  by  the  scheduled  route.  In 
this  case  a  day  trip  would  suffice  for  Santos,  and  he 
would  begin  the  journey  from  Sao  Paulo. 

RIO  GRANDE    DO   SUL 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — Vessels  of  the  Hamburg-America  line  call 
here  regularly.  A  coasting  service  is  maintained  by  the 
Lloyd-Brasileiro. 

RAILWAYS — A  line  of  about  140  miles  in  length  runs  to  Bage,  and 
thus  Rio  Grande  is  joined  to  the  general  railway  system  of 
Southern  Brazil.  The  return  first-class  fare  to  Bage  is 
£2  35. 

HOTELS — The  Hotels  Paris  and  Brazil  are  in  the  Rue 
Floriano.     The  charges  are  about  ros.  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  E.  J.  Wigg. 


BRAZIL  141 

BANK — London  and  Brazilian  Bank. 
NEWSPAPERS— Unimportant. 
There  is  an  Anglican  Church. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul  is  an  insignificant  town  with 
about  40,000  inhabitants.  It  was  founded  in  1737  by 
Jose  da  Silva  Paes,  but  it  has  never  been  of  much 
importance  until  it  became  an  industrial  centre.  It  is 
lighted  by  gas  and  has  tramcars.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  Municipal  Palace,  the  Church  of  Sao  Pedro, 
and  the  Bibliotheca  Riograndense,  with  30,000 
volumes.  The  mean  temperature  is  66°Fahr.  The 
seasons  are  :  summer  from  January  to  March,  autumn 
from  April  to  June,  winter  from  July  to  September, 
and  spring  from  October  to  December.  In  the  high 
grounds  of  the  interior  the  winters  are  rigorous.  As  a 
port  the  town  suffers  from  a  very  awkward  bar, 
situated  9  miles  away,  which  prevents  the  approach  of 
large  ships.  The  exports  are  hides,  horns,  bone,  dried 
beef,  wool,  and  hair.  They  were  valued  at  10,288,345 
milreis  in  1911.  The  imports  are  small.  There  are 
forty-eight  factories  in  the  town,  including  the  oldest 
woollen  mill  in  Brazil,  and  there  are  cotton,  biscuit 
and  other  factories.  If  the  traveller  goes  by  rail  from 
Sao  Paulo  to  Uruguay,  there  is  no  need  to  visit  this 
town.  A  journey  may  be  made,  return  fare  55.  6d., 
to  Pelotas  (Hotels,  Allianfa  and  Brazil). 

PORTO   ALEGRE 

STEAMSHIPS— The  journey  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (180  miles)  is 
made  by  a  small  steamboat  over  the  shallow  waters  of  the 
Lagoa  dos  Patos. 

RAILWAYS— A  line  belonging  to  the  Rio  Grande  Railway 
system  runs  to  Cacequy,  whence  it  is  possible  to  go  north  to 
Sao  Paulo  or  south  to  Montevideo.  There  is  also  a  line  to 
Novo  Hamburgo.  Porto  Alegre  is  96  hours  by  rail  from 
Rio  de  Janeiro. 


142       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

HOTELS — Grande,    from    los.    to    145.   a    day;    Grande    Hotel 

Schmitt,  from  95.  to  125. 
BRITISH  CONSUL— Consul,  T.  C.  Dillon. 
BANK — London  and  Brazilian  Bank. 
NEWSPAPERS — Jornal  do  Commercio,  Correo  do  Povo,  Gazetta  do 

Commercio,  A  Federacao,  Deutsche  Zeitung. 

Porto  Alegre,  the  capital  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  is 
an  attractive  town  of  over  100,000  inhabitants.  Its 
prosperity  is  largely  due  to  the  German  element ;  there 
are  a  number  of  German  colonies  round  about  Novo 
Hamburgo.  It  was  founded  in  1/43  by  immigrants 
from  the  Azores,  and  in  1807  the  seat  of  the  State 
Government  was  transferred  hither  from  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul.  The  first  Germans  came  in  1825,  and  great 
numbers  arrived  after  the  Prussian  revolution  of  1848. 
The  climate  is  good  ;  the  mean  temperature  ranges 
from  59°  to  82°  Fahr.  The  annual  rainfall  is  30^ 
inches.  The  city  is  well  laid  out  with  broad  streets, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  Voluntario  da  Patria  and 
the  7  de  Setembro.  There  are  many  fine  squares,  as 
the  Praca  Harmonia  and  the  Pra$a  da  Independencia, 
and  there  is  a  pleasant  park.  The  city  stands  high  on 
a  promontory  near  the  mouths  of  the  Jacuhy  and 
Guahyba  Rivers.  There  is  a  good  service  of  electric 
tramcars,  and  the  suburbs  are  pleasant.  The 
Municipal  Palace,  the  Military  Schools,  the  hospitals 
and  the  theatre  are  handsome  buildings.  Porto 
Alegre  is  reckoned  as  a  port,  although  accessible  only 
to  vessels  drawing  9  feet.  It  exports  the  same  com- 
modities as  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  In  1911  the  exports 
were  5,916,789  milreis  and  the  imports  32,203,940. 
It  has  a  number  of  miscellaneous  factories. 

The  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  is  important  and 
progressive.  Agriculture,  although  the  methods  are 
somewhat  primitive,  is  vigorously  pursued,  and  a 
great  quantity  of  wheat  is  raised.  Wine  is  also 


BRAZIL  143 

cultivated,  and  about  5  million  litres  are  sent  yearly 
to  the  north  of  Brazil.  But  by  far  the  chief  industry  is 
pastoral.  The  beasts  are  inferior  to  those  of  Uruguay 
and  Argentina,  but  a  great  quantity  of  beef  is  raised, 
and  improvements  have  been  effected  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Durhams,  Herefords,  and  Polled  Angus. 
Bage,  Sao  Gabriel,  and  Pelotas  are  great  centres  of  the 
meat  trade. 


THE  AMAZONIAN  REGION 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  only  convenient 
way  to  visit  the  Amazon  is  to  make  a  separate  tour. 
It  is  easily  reached,  and  the  boats  are  good.  The 
vast  territory  watered  by  the  Amazon  has  been  fre- 
quently described.  The  Amazon  is  fully  4,000  miles 
in  length,  the  greatest  river  in  the  world,  and  it 
drains  an  area  of  2,722,000  square  miles.  After 
entering  Brazil  it  has  over  two  hundred  affluents,  of 
which  eighteen  are  rivers  of  the  first  rank.  The 
chief  are  the  Javary,  the  Jutahy,  the  Jurua,  the 
Purus,  the  Madeira,  the  Tapajos,  the  Zingu,  the  lea, 
the  Yapura,  the  Negro,  and  the  Trombetas.  The 
Madeira  has  a  length  of  3,000  miles.  It  is  the  only 
highroad  for  Northern  Brazil,  leading  far  into  Peru, 
and,  as  has  been  seen,  there  is  now  access  into 
Bolivia  with  the  help  of  the  Madeira- Marmore 
Railway.  Its  volume  of  water  is  immense — said  to 
be  500,000  cubic  feet  per  second — and  where  it 
enters  the  sea,  whose  waters  it  discolours  for  a 
distance  of  120  miles,  its  breadth  is  158  miles.  The 
Brazilians  call  it  the  Rio-Mar  or  Sea-River,  and  it 
well  deserves  that  title.  The  two  Amazonian  States 
are  Para  and  Amazonas,  both  very  thinly  inhabited. 
Amazonas,  by  far  the  largest  of  all  Brazilian  States, 
has  an  area  of  732,439  square  miles  and  a  popula- 


144       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

tion  of  only  249,756.  Yet,  among  all  the  rich 
regions  of  Brazil,  there  is  none  more  wealthy  than 
this  uninhabited  region,  and  Humboldt  long  ago 
said  that  commerce  would  eventually  be  concen- 
trated upon  the  Amazon,  which  would  be  the  seat 
of  the  world's  civilization.  A  beginning  has  been 
made  with  the  rubber  traffic,  to  which  the  inhabi- 
tants devote  themselves  with  short-sighted  exclusive- 
ness,  and  the  competition  of  plantation  rubber  will 
probably  be  a  blessing  in  disguise  by  compelling 
them  to  turn  their  attention  to  cocoa,  tobacco  and 
cotton,  which  are  but  a  few  of  the  products  of  this 
bountiful  region.  Nearly  every  book *  on  Brazil 
gives  an  account  of  this  industry,  which  may  be 
usefully  illustrated  by  a  visit  to  Kew  Gardens. 
Rubber  was  not  known  to  the  civilized  world  until 
1736,  and  for  more  than  a  century  was  little  used 
except  by  artists.  It  is  now  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  commercial  products,  and  its  importance 
has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  rapid  advance  of 
the  motor-car.  A  trip  into  the  centre  of  the 
industry  is  easy  and  pleasant  owing  to  that  magnifi- 
cent waterway  the  Amazon,  and  it  is  the  only 
montana  (forest)  part  of  South  America  which  can 
be  penetrated  without  serious  discomfort.  The 
hotels  are  comparatively  good. 

PARA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  steamers  of  the  Booth  Line  leave  Liver- 
pool twice  a  month  for  Para,  touching  at  Cherbourg,  Vigo, 
Leixoes  (Oporto)  and  Lisbon.  The  minimum  single  fare  is 
^28.  The  steamers  come  up  to  the  wharf.  There  is  also  a 
coasting  service  by  the  Lloyd  Brasileiro  from  Pernambuco. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  a  line  to  Braganca,  about  150  miles  distant. 


1  See  in  particular  an  excellent  illustrated  account  by  M.  Paul 
Walle,  Au  Bresil  du  Rio  Sao  Francisco  a  LAmazone,  pp.  343-74. 


BRAZIL  145 

HOTELS— Cafe  du  Paz,  Plaga  da  Republica  (good),  about  £i  a 
day ;  Hotel  do  Commercio,  Rua  da  Industria,  French,  good 
cooking  ;  Hotel  Universal,  Hotel  Americana  ;  these  are 
about  i6s.  a  day.  There  are  several  restaurants. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  G.  B.  Michell ;  Vice-Consul,  J. 
Bremner. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank. 

NEWSPAPERS — Folha  do  Norte,  A  Provincia  do  Para,  O  Jornal. 

Para,  as  it  is  usually  called,  instead  of  receiving  its 
cumbrous  full  name  of  Santa  Maria  de  Belem  do  GrSo 
Para,  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  in  Brazil, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  200,000.  It  stands  on 
a  bend  of  the  River  Para  or  Tocantins,  about  80  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  2,142  miles  from  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Para  is  an  extremely  handsome  town,  with  great  park- 
like  squares  and  avenues.  The  finest  of  the  squares  is 
the  Praca  da  Republica,  which  is  adorned  by  many 
magnificent  public  buildings,  among  them  the  Theatro 
da  Paz,  the  best  in  Brazil  outside  the  capital.  Among 
the  avenues,  the  most  noteworthy  are  the  Avenida  da 
Republica,  Sao  Jeronymo,  Nazareth,  and  Indepen- 
dencia.  The  tall  trees  and  tropical  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  add  greatly  to  the  attractions  of  Para. 
There  is  an  old  cathedral,  and  many  of  the  public 
and  private  buildings  are  very  handsome.  The 
Museum  in  the  Avenida  da  Nazareth  has  a  good 
natural  history  collection,  and  there  is  an  attractive 
Botanical  Garden.  The  service  of  electric  tramcars 
is  excellent.  There  is  here  a  large  English  colony, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  trade  and  industries  is  in  English 
hands.  The  cost  of  living  is  extremely  high  in  Para. 
The  climate  is  better  than  is  usual  in  the  coast  regions 
of  Brazil  ;  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
80°  Fahr.  There  are  only  two  seasons,  the  rainy, 
from  December  to  May,  and  the  dry  season,  which 
occupies  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  heat  is  tempered 

L 


146       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

by  cool  breezes,  and  the  mornings,  up  to  ten  o'clock, 
are  generally  fresh  and  pleasant. 

As  is  well  known,  Para  is  the  centre  of  the  rubber 
industry,  to  the  best  variety  of  which  it  gives  the 
name.  It  is  the  third  port  of  the  Republic.  In  1911 
the  imports  were  valued  at  47,591,607  milreis  and  the 
exports  at  93,247,097.  The  harbour  has  undergone 
recent  improvement  at  great  expense. 

MANAOS 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  voyage  of  the  Booth  Line  steamers  is 
prolonged  from  Para  to  Manaos,  occupying  4  days  up- 
stream, while  the  down-stream  journey  is  made  in  2.  It 
is  possible  to  proceed  up  the  river  to  Iquitos  by  the  Iquitos 
Steamship  Company.  There  is  a  frequent  service  by  Brazil- 
ian vessels.  The  fare  from  Para  to  Manaos  is  £8  135.  4d.,  to 
Iquitos  about  £21.  Manaos  is  925  miles  from  Para  and 
3,204  from  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

RAILWAYS — None. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Casina,  Gran  Hotel.    The  charges  are  £i  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Vice-Consul,  W.  Robilliard. 

BANKS — London  and  River  Plate  (Agency),  London  and  Brazilian 
Bank. 

NEWSPAPERS — A  Amazonas,  Correio  do  Norte,  A  Noticia,  A 
Illustrafao. 

Manaos,  which  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  was  a 
village,  is  now  a  fine  town  of  50,000  inhabitants, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Negro,  8  miles 
from  the  Amazon.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  State  of 
Amazonas.  Like  all  the  new  towns  of  Brazil,  it  pos- 
sesses splendid  avenues,  of  which  the  chief  are  the 
Avenida  da  Eduardo  Ribeiro,  the  fashionable  pro- 
menade, the  Rua  Municipale,  Jose  Clemente,  Remedies, 
and  15  de  Novembro.  The  streets  are  planted  with 
fine  trees,  brilliantly  lighted,  and  have  a  good  service 
of  electric  tramcars.  Manaos  is  distinguished  for  the 
splendour  of  its  public  buildings,  one  of  the  best  of 


BRAZIL  147 

which  is  the  Theatre  Amazonas,  which  cost  ^400,000 
to  build,  the  Palace  of  Justice,  and  many  others. 
Opposite  the  theatre  is  a  fine  piece  of  statuary  which 
commemorates  the  opening  of  the  Amazon  in  1866 
to  the  vessels  of  all  nations.  Manaos  is  another 
great  centre  of  the  rubber  trade.  In  1911  the  im- 
ports were  valued  at  25,108,151  milreis,  the  exports 
at  111,351,659. 

A  brief  account  has  now  been  given  of  the 
Amazonian  region,  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  This 
field  is  probably  large  enough  to  satisfy  the  average 
tourist,  but  it  only  touches  the  fringe  of  Brazil. 
Many  other  States  are  of  considerable  importance, 
and  would  repay  a  visit.  There  is  Ceara  in  the 
north,  which  has  an  extensive  railway  system  and 
produces  a  great  quantity  of  cotton.  There  are  the 
States  of  Alagoas  and  Sergipe  to  the  north  and  Espi- 
rito  Santo  to  the  south  of  Bahia,  typical  coast  regions, 
producing  sugar  and  cotton.  Maceio,  the  capital 
of  Alagoas,  is  a  flourishing  town  with  nearly  50,000 
inhabitants.  Farther  south  are  Parana  and  Santa 
Catharina,  which  inland  have  a  delightful  climate 
and  extremely  fine  scenery.  Herba  mate  is  the  chief 
product,  but  wheat  is  also  raised,  and  there  is  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  crops.  Curityba,  the  capital  of 
Parana,  is  a  large  city  with  about  50,000  inhabitants. 
It  is  better  to  travel  to  these  States  by  sea,  as  the  land 
journey  is  uncomfortable  and  costs  about  ^9 — fully 
double  the  price  for  a  sea  passage.  More  important 
are  the  great  States  of  the  interior,  which  are  store- 
houses of  vast,  undeveloped  wealth.  Matto  Grosso, 
the  second  largest  of  the  Brazilian  States,  has  fewest 
inhabitants  ;  with  an  area  considerably  larger  than  the 
whole  of  South  Africa,  it  has  less  population  than 


148       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Johannesburg.  The  journey  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to 
Cuyaba,  the  State  capital,  which  is  made  by  way  of 
Buenos  Aires  up  the  River  Paraguay,  occupies  fully 
30  days.  At  no  distant  date  Corumba,  the  chief 
river  port,  will  have  a  railway-line  to  Sao  Paulo. 
Stock-raising  is  the  principal  industry  of  Matto  Grosso, 
but  when  the  communications  are  improved  this  vast 
district  will  be  one  of  the  best  agricultural  regions  in 
the  world.  Not  dissimilar  is  Goyaz,  though  smaller 
and  somewhat  more  populous.  This  State  has  rail- 
way communication  with  Sao  Paulo,  and  its  principal 
industries  are  stock-raising  and  tobacco.  In  early 
times  these  States  produced  enormous  quantities  of 
gold,  but  there  is  now  little  mining  carried  on  in 
either  of  them.  Most  important  of  all  the  inland 
States  of  Brazil  is  Minas  Geraes,  which  is  the  most 
populous  of  them  and  the  only  one  where  there  is 
any  adequate  exploitation  of  the  mineral  resources. 
A  French  writer  remarks  that  those  who  only  visit  the 
coast  towns  of  Brazil  take  away  a  very  superficial 
notion  of  the  country  :  "  It  is  in  the  interior  where  the 
life,  the  work,  and  commerce  keep  longest  the  tradi- 
tional forms,  and  here  we  can  best  judge  of  the 
evolution  and  the  moral  and  material  progress  of 
the  country."  The  hilly  and  well-watered  State  of 
Minas  Geraes  has  an  excellent  climate,  owing  to  the 
upland  situation  of  its  towns,  which  stand  at  least 
2,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  St.  Hilaire  said  of 
it  that  "  if  there  exists  a  country  which  in  the  future  is 
capable  of  surpassing  the  rest  of  the  world,  it  is  the 
province  of  Minas,  when  its  infinite  resources  shall 
have  been  exploited  by  a  less  scanty  population."  Gold 
and  diamond  mines  are  largely  worked,  and  there  are 
immense  deposits  of  iron  ore,  but  even  here  only 
small  beginnings  have  been  made.  That  of  Morro 
Velho,  near  Bello  Horizonte,  is  the  chief  gold-mine. 


BRAZIL  149 

The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  but  better  agricultural 
methods  are  urgently  needed. 

The  capital,  Bello  Horizonte,  is  16  hours  by  rail 
from  Rio,  and  the  return  fare  is  about  ^4  i2s. 
This  beautiful  town,  2,000  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
is  planned  on  an  ambitious  scale  with  long  and 
spacious  avenues.  It  is  quite  a  new  place,  and  has 
only  recently  been  made  the  capital.  There  are  many 
handsome  public  buildings  and  a  few  small  manu- 
facturing industries.  One  avenue — the  Affonso  Penna 
— is  150  feet  broad  and  2  miles  long. 

Ouro  Preto,  the  old  capital  of  the  State,  is  still  the 
mining  capital ;  all  round  are  sixteenth  and  seventeenth- 
century  mines,  that  were  worked  in  primitive  fashion 
and  abandoned  as  soon  as  these  methods  failed.  The 
two  towns  have  not  more  than  25,000  inhabitants 
each.  Here  is  a  monument  to  the  conspirator  Tira- 
dentes,  who  belonged  to  this  town.  Not  less  important 
is  Diamantina,  a  town  about  their  equal  in  size,  which 
has  lately  been  connected  with  the  rest  of  Brazil  by  the 
Central  Railway ;  it  is  a  progressive  town,  the  centre  of 
the  diamond  industry,  and  will  undoubtedly  play  a 
great  part  in  the  future  industrial  history  of  Brazil. 
Sir  Richard  Burton,  who  believed  that  in  Brazil  "  the 
true  exploitation  of  precious  lithology  has  still  to 
begin,"  says  of  Diamantina,  which  is  almost  the 
highest  of  Brazilian  towns,  standing  5,700  feet  high  : 
"  In  the  clear,  bracing  air  European  fruits  and  vege- 
tables thrive ;  the  soil  is  sometimes  rich  and  deep,  and 
the  abnormal  expense  of  provisions  would  make  the 
neighbourhood  an  excellent  market  for  an  agricultural 
colony."  Minas  Geraes  played  a  part  of  some  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  Brazil,  being  almost  the  first 
district  in  South  America  to  begin  a  revolutionary 
movement,  but  it  is  still  more  celebrated  for  its  poetry, 
which  indeed  was  commingled  with  its  politics. 


ISO       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Antonio  Gonzaga  was,  apparently  on  insufficient 
evidence,  charged  with  participating  in  the  conspiracy 
and  banished  to  Mozambique.  Only  Tiradentes  was 
executed.  Gonzaga,  who  was  born  in  Oporto,  is  the 
chief  patriotic  poet  of  Brazil.  Of  him  Burton  says  : 
f<  Remarkable  for  grace  and  naivete,  his  erotics  contain 
not  a  trace  of  coarseness  :  they  are  sentimental,  dashed 
with  a  tinge  of  melancholy,  which  of  course  deepens 
in  the  gloom  of  his  prison.  As  is  the  case  with  all  the 
better  Portuguese  poets,  his  style  is  remarkably  correct 
and  his  language  studiously  simple,  withal  sufficient." 

It  will  be  seen  that,  quite  apart  from  the  tourist 
tracts,  Brazil  offers  much  that  is  of  interest,  and, 
indeed,  the  climate  of  the  interior  is  infinitely  superior 
to  that  of  the  coast,  which  has  given  Brazil  its  indif- 
ferent reputation.  But  to  visit  even  a  few  of  these 
places  would  require  a  large  expenditure  of  time  and 
money,  much  monotonous  voyaging  on  uncomfortable 
steamers,  and  much  mule-riding.  At  some  of  these 
interior  towns,  we  are  told,  hotels  of  the  tenth  order 
are  highly  acceptable,  and  at  many  there  are  none 
at  all.  The  traveller  must  be  prepared  for  many 
discomforts. 


BOOKS   ON    BRAZIL 

Bates,  H.  W.     The  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon.     London, 

1873.     Many  editions. 
Denis,  Pierre.     Brazil  (translated   by  B.  Miall).      London, 

1911.     South  American  Series. 

Domvile-Fife,  C.  W.     The  United  States  of  Brazil.     London. 
Oakenfull,  J.  C.     Brazil  in  1911.     London,  1912. 
Southey,  R.     History  of  Brazil.     London,  1810-19. 
Probably  the  best  modern  work  on  Brazil,  an  extremely  com- 
prehensive industrial  and  topographical  survey,  is  two  volumes 
by  a  Frenchman — 

Paul  Walle.     Au  Bresil — De  L  Uruguay  au  Rio  Sao  Fran- 
cisco.    Paris,  1910. 


BRAZIL  151 

Paul  Walle.     An  Bresil—Du  Rio  Sao  Francisco  a  L' Amazon. 

Paris,  1911. 

The  account  of  Brazil  with  most  literary  merit,  describing 
older  conditions,  which,  however,  have  not  undergone  much 
change,  is — 

R.  F.  Burton.    Explorations  of  the  Highlands  of  the  Brazil 

London,  1869. 
Useful  works  on  special  subjects  are — 

Cattelle,  W.  R.     The  Diamond.     London,  1912. 
Casabona,  L.    Sao  Paulo  du  Bresil.     Paris,  1908. 


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CHILE 

Railways  shown  thus 


CHILE 

AREA,  SOIL  AND  CLIMATE 

IN  proportion  to  its  area,  Chile  is  the  longest  and 
narrowest  country  in  the  world,  stretching  from  the 
Province  of  Tacna,  lat.  17°  S.,  to  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
lat.  55°  S.,  and  even  farther,  if  the  group  of  islands 
which  ends  with  Cape  Horn  be  counted.  The  length 
is  nearly  3,000  miles  and  the  mean  breadth  not  more 
than  70  miles.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that 
this  peculiar  configuration  is  due  to  the  natural  wall 
of  the  Andes,  which  effectually  cuts  off  Chile  from  all 
the  rest  of  South  America,  with  the  exception  of  its 
northern  neighbour,  Peru.  The  area  of  the  Republic 
is  about  308,000  square  miles,  and  the  population 
is  nearly  4,000,000.  A  country  of  such  length  from 
north  to  south,  running  along  the  western  slope  of  the 
Andes,  has,  as  might  be  expected,  great  varieties  of 
climate,  which  depend  chiefly  on  the  variety  of  the 
rainfall.  Chile  comprises  three  regions — the  desert  of 
the  north,  the  central  zone,  which  is  fertile  and  tem- 
perate, and  the  rainy  and  inclement  southern  territory. 
As  Darwin  noticed,  Chile  owes  all  its  rainfall  to  the 
Pacific,  save  for  Tierra  del  Fuego,  which  also  draws 
moisture  from  the  Atlantic.  In  the  south,  furious 
gales,  which  blow  perpetually  from  the  Pacific  in  a 
westerly  direction,  bringing  banks  of  clouds  against 
the  mountains  in  Magellanes,  Chiloe  and  Llanquihue, 
cause  an  enormous  rainfall.  But  towards  the  central 

153 


154       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

latitudes  the  winds  have  a  south-westerly  trend,  bring- 
ing the  clouds  more  gently  ashore,  and  giving  good 
rain,  which  becomes  less  and  less  copious  the  farther 
north  the  traveller  goes.  Hence,  between  Valdivia 
and  Coquimbo  lies  a  favoured  country,  which  has 
given  Chile  its  good  climatic  reputation.  The  air  is 
exhilarating,  the  sun  bright,  and  yet  rain  is  usually 
plentiful.  This  region  includes  the  Provinces  of  San- 
tiago and  Valparaiso,  which  are  the  most  populous 
districts  of  Chile,  and  the  whole  country  down  to 
Valdivia ;  this  is  the  Chile  which  travellers  have  in 
mind  when  they  write  their  glowing  descriptions  of 
the  climate  and  the  country.  But  even  here  droughts 
are  not  uncommon.  The  following  rainfall  figures 
will  show  what  varieties  of  humidity  are  to  be  found  : — 

Inches 

Iquique          0*5 

Coquimbo      r6 

Valparaiso     13^5 

Santiago         14*5 

Talca 197 

Valdivia         115-0 

Punta  Arenas           22*5 

But,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  climate  of  Central  Chile  is 
delightful,  and  reminds  one  strongly  of  England  at  its 
best.  But  this  inestimable  benefit  is  in  danger  of  being 
lost,  unless  the  Chilian  Government  takes  better  care 
of  its  forests,  which  are  an  invaluable  means  of  pre- 
cipitating rain  and  averting  droughts.  A  traveller 
noted  that  at  the  small  town  of  Los  Andes  a  thousand 
well-grown  shrubs  were  being  daily  destroyed  for  fire- 
wood. North  of  Coquimbo  the  winds  begin  to  blow 
(if  they  blow  at  all)  due  south,  thus  causing  the  clouds 
to  run  parallel  to  the  land  and  to  miss  it  altogether. 
Accordingly  the  towering  Andes  precipitate  no  rain, 
but  stand,  grim  and  treeless,  looking  upon  the  desert 


CHILE  155 

which  forms  the  whole  of  the  north  of  Chile,  and  yet, 
by  a  strange  paradox,  is  the  chief  source  of  its  wealth, 
for  it  contains  the  boundless  deposits  of  nitrate — the 
staple  of  Chilian  commerce.  A  word  will  be  said 
about  the  nitrate  fields  under  the  head  of  Iquique ;  it  will 
here  suffice  to  say  that  these  regions  offer  a  prospect 
of  desolation  surpassed  by  few  places  on  the  globe. 

Thus  there  are  two  extremes  of  south  and  north — 
moist  and  dry.  The  north  is  so  dry  that  nothing  will 
grow  there,  and  the  inhabitants  are  mere  colonists, 
bringing  their  food  by  sea  from  more  favoured  regions. 
Here,  however,  there  are  flourishing  towns,  whereas 
the  rain  and  general  inclemency  of  the  extreme  south 
has  an  even  more  desolating  effect,  and  it  is  inhabited 
by  the  naked  Yaghans,  who  are  in  as  low  a  state  of 
savagery  as  when  they  were  visited  by  the  Beagle. 
11  In  seasons  of  famine  they  strangle  the  old  women 
and  keep  the  dogs  alive — '  Doggie  catch  otter,  old 
woman,  no ! '  Malformed  children  and  incurably 
diseased  persons  are  always  strangled."  But  these 
Spartan  methods  do  not  secure  the  happiness  or  the 
continuity  of  the  race.  "  There  is  absolutely  no  room 
for  sentiment  in  that  savage  climate  !  Nor  is  it 
wonderful  that  they  have  diminished  "  from  2,500  to 
a  bare  200  in  thirty  years'  time."  They  are  "  drunken, 
lazy,  and  incorrigible  liars."  I 

These  people  are  now  confined  to  the  western  sea- 
board of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  A  little  farther  north  are 
the  Alakalufs,  a  fishing  and  hunting  tribe,  who  are  on 
a  somewhat  higher  level  ;  in  the  more  temperate 
regions  the  Indians  become  more  civilized.  Including 
the  Araucanians,  there  are  about  100,000  Indians  in 
Chile.  In  Tierra  del  Fuego  itself  and  elsewhere  in 

1  These  quotations  are  taken  from  Mr.  Scott  Elliott's  book  and 
from  an  article  by  Mr.  Barclay  in  the  Geographical  Journal  of 
January,  1904. 


156       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the  south  of  Chile  there  is  splendid  grazing  land  for 
sheep  hardy  enough  to  stand  the  rigorous  climate  ; 
a  great  quantity  of  excellent  wool  is  raised,  and  Punta 
Arenas  has  thus  become  an  important  place.  The 
temperate  climate  and  long  sea-border  have  made  the 
Chilians  a  hardy,  seafaring  race,  and  they  are  the 
most  vigorous  people  in  South  America. 

The  two  remarkable  features  about  the  geology  of 
the  country  are  the  comparatively  recent  formation  of 
the  Andes  "and  the  fact  that  in  the  earliest  times  a  large 
part  of  Chile — the  Nitrate  Pampa — was  covered  by  the 
great  Pampean  Sea,  which  also  extended  over  the 
whole  of  Argentina.  Chile  was  a  mere  strip  of  rock 
following  the  line  of  the  present  seacoast.  Then,  after 
the  Silurian  age,  the  seafloor  eastwards  was  disturbed 
by  submarine  volcanoes,  and  the  land  became  overlaid 
with  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  deposits.  The  original 
rocks  themselves  are  probably  Palaeozoic.  The  Andes 
were  formed  by  volcanic  disturbance  and  consist 
almost  entirely  of  Cretaceous  and  Jurassic  beds. 

The  mountain  system  of  Chile  consists  of  the 
Andes,  but  they  do  not  form  a  single  chain.  The 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes  rises  in  the  east  and  continues 
the  whole  length  of  the  country,  while  the  outer 
Cordillera  runs  nearly  parallel,  but  disappears  almost 
entirely  in  the  north  and  south.  The  best  and  most 
populous  part  of  the  Republic,  including  Santiago,  is 
comprised  within  these  two  barriers.  The  Andes 
reach  their  greatest  height  along  the  frontiers  of  the 
Argentine  Provinces  of  Mendoza  and  San  Juan.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  Aconcagua,  which  is 
possibly  the  highest  peak  in  the  New  World,  is  in 
Argentina,  and  also  that  no  two  authorities  agree  as  to 
the  heights  of  the  various  mountains  and  show  con- 
siderable discrepancies  even  as  regards  their  names. 
The  height  of  the  Andes  in  the  north,  though  great,  is 


CHILE  157 

less  than  the  central  part  of  the  range,  and  as  they  run 
south  they  become  steadily  lower;  the  highest  point  in 
Tierra  del  Fuego  barely  reaches  7,000  feet.  The 
following  are  among  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Andes  : — 

Feet 

Socompa 19,600 

Azupe  de  Copiapo  ...         ...         ...  19,700 

Cerro  del  Mercedario     22,320 

Tupungato 22,000 

San  Jose  de  Maipu          J7>644 

Tronador 9,790 

The  last  two  are  enumerated,  not  as  being  of  remark- 
able elevation  but  because  they  belong  to  the  southern 
chain.  Hundreds  of  the  Andes  are  quite  unknown, 
and  many  of  them  are  fully  20,000  feet  in  height ; 
most  of  them  are  extinct  volcanoes,  and  a  few  still 
show  some  activity. 

It  is  only  in  the  north  that  the  outer  Cordillera  attain 
great  heights,  such  as  Tacora  (19,800)  and  Parinacota 
(20,950).  South  of  Valdivia  this  range  disappears 
altogether.  The  rivers  of  Chile,  though  short,  are  very 
useful,  for  they  enable  the  arid  country  to  be  irrigated. 
The  principal  are  the  Copiapo,  Huasco,  Coquimbo, 
Limari,  Aconcagua,  Maipo,  Maule,  Biobio,  Bueno, 
Valdivia,  and  Maullin.  The  Biobio,  the  most  con- 
siderable of  these,  is  only  220  miles  long. 

Lakes  are  numerous,  and  the  largest  is  Llanquihue, 
with  an  area  of  285  square  miles. 

The  flora  of  Chile  is  distinguished  by  the  great 
number  of  indigenous  forms.  The  north  is  an  arid 
desert,  practically  devoid  of  vegetation.  Gradually 
it  becomes  more  plentiful,  and  when  the  Province  of 
Coquimbo  is  reached,  the  peculiar  Chilian  types  of 
flora  begin  to  make  their  appearance.  Grapes  and  figs 
reach  a  high  point  of  excellence,  strawberries  are 
indigenous,  and  willows  grow  by  the  sides  of  the 


158       A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

streams.  It  seems  certain  that  the  potato  was  first  met 
with  in  Southern  Chile.  The  cocoanut-palm  (Palma 
Chilensis)  is  common,  and  there  is  a  great  variety  of 
forest  trees.  There  are  at  least  ninety  different 
varieties  of  valuable  woods,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that 
the  Government  of  Chile  does  not  take  better  care  of 
the  forests. 

The  fauna  of  Chile  is  comparatively  scanty  and 
uninteresting.  Rodents  are  tolerably  common,  among 
which  are  the  chinchilla  and  the  copyu,  perhaps  allied 
to  the  beaver  ;  both  are  valued  for  their  fur.  The 
guanaco  is  common.  Jaguars  and  venomous  snakes 
are  wholly  wanting,  and  there  are  no  apes.  Imported 
cattle  and  sheep  do  well  in  Chile.  The  only  copious 
form  of  fauna  in  the  country  is  the  tribe  of  birds, 
many  of  which  are  indigenous,  and  among  them  the 
condor  and  the  parrot  are  conspicuous,  while  in  the 
southern  regions  sea-fowl  are  very  numerous.  In 
the  islands  humming  birds  are  not  uncommon. 

FOREIGN  TRADE  AND  PRODUCTS 

The  foreign  trade  of  Chile  is  large  and  increasing. 
Values,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  throughout  ex- 
pressed in  the  gold  peso,  which  is  worth  i8d. 
The  paper  currency  fluctuates,  and  the  system  badly 
needs  reform. 

Gold  dollars 

In  1911  the  imports  were 348,990,354 

exports      „     339>4°9»363 

In  imports  England  came  first  with  (roughly)  in 
millions,  followed  by  Germany  with  89  and  the 
United  States  with  43.  Argentina,  Peru,  France, 
Belgium,  Italy,  India  and  Australia  came  next  with 
smaller  amounts.  Textiles,  coal,  oil  and  machinery 
are  the  principal  items,  but  the  imports  are  of  the 
miscellaneous  character  common  to  South  American 


CHILE  159 

countries,  for  Chile  has  not  been  able  to  develop 
manufactures  on  a  scale  nearly  equal  to  meeting  the 
home  demand,  in  spite  of  rigorous  Protection.  The 
openings  for  trade  in  English  goods  are  numerous,  and 
our  Consuls  are  constantly  urging  merchants  to  get 
into  personal  touch  with  their  customers  and  push 
their  trade,  nor  have  those  who  have  followed  this 
advice  ever  regretted  the  step.  As  English  firms  have 
a  very  old  connexion  with  Chile,  English  trade  is 
at  a  considerable  advantage,  but  perpetual  efforts  are 
needed  to  retain  and  improve  it. 

England  takes  a  very  large  share  of  the  exports — 145 
millions,  Germany  taking  71,  the  United  States  53  and 
France  16.  The  enormous  proportion  of  294,431,542 
pesos  gold  is  classified  under  the  head  of  mineral 
products,  and  quite  five-sixths  of  this  is  nitrate,  for 
the  ancient  glory  has  departed  from  other  branches  of 
Chilian  mining ;  however,  many  copper-mines  are  still 
worked,  and  a  fair  amount  of  copper  and  copper  ore  is 
still  produced.  The  value  of  this  export  is  usually 
about  a  million  sterling.  Tin  ore  is  also  exported. 
Agriculture  is  an  extremely  important  industry  in 
Central  Chile,  and  Chilian  wheat  is  highly  esteemed. 
The  export  of  cereals  is  considerable,  although 
naturally  the  bulk  is  consumed  at  home,  as  Northern 
Chile  produces  no  food-stuffs  whatever.  The  Chilian 
timber,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  is  valuable. 

In  1910  the  agricultural  production  was  thus  esti- 
mated : — 

Tons 

Wheat       248,460 

Potatoes 101,240 

Barley       26,281 

Beans       I8,5i3 

Maize        15*510 

Oats          13,002 

Peas         3,743 


160       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  amount  of  wine  produced  was  26,004,394  gal- 
lons. The  live  stock  comprised  3,537,738  sheep, 
1,640,322  oxen,  415,000  horses  and  mules,  and  159,000 
pigs. 

Chile  is  famous  for  its  honey.  In  1910,  5,550  tons 
of  honey  and  1,000  tons  of  wax  were  produced,  chiefly 
in  the  districts  of  Coquimbo  and  Aconcagua. 

Wine  of  an  excellent  quality  is  made  in  Chile,  the 
principal  seats  of  viticulture  being  the  Provinces  of 
Santiago  and  Aconcagua.  The  Chilian  wine  industry 
is  not  much  smaller  than  that  of  Argentina,  and,  on 
the  whole,  Chilian  wines  are  the  best  in  South 
America.  The  manufacture  of  wine  was  only  com- 
menced about  forty  years  ago,  so  it  will  be  seen  that 
great  progress  has  been  made,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
only  one-tenth  of  the  area  suitable  for  viticulture  is 
used  for  that  purpose.  The  Panquehue  vineyard  in 
Aconcagua  and  the  Macul  vineyard,  n  miles  from 
the  city  of  Santiago,  are  among  the  largest  in  Chjle. 

Those  who  wish  to  trade  with  Chile  must  neces- 
sarily study  the  tariff,  which  is  very  elaborate 
and  liable  to  constant  changes.  The  first  article  of 
the  import  tariff  states  :  *(  All  foreign  products  shall, 
on  importation  for  consumption,  be  liable  to  a  duty 
of  25  per  cent,  on  their  valuation,  with  the  exception 
of  those  subject  to  a  duty  of  60,  35,  15,  and  5  per 
cent.,  those  liable  to  specific  duties  and  duty-free 
articles."  \No  less  than  59  articles  are  subject  to  a 
duty  of  60  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  a  great 
number  of  raw  materials  and  implements  of  industry 
are  on  the  free  list.  Chile,  having  practically  a 
monopoly  in  natural  nitrate,  is  in  the  happy  position 
of  being  able  to  make  it  a  large  source  of  revenue. 
There  is  a  duty  of  about  53.  on  every  quintal  of 
nitrate  exported,  which  is  an  important  source  of 
revenue. 


CHILE  161 

PAPER  MONEY 

The  Chilian  currency  has  long  been  in  an  unsatis- 
factory condition,  and  enlightened  statesmen  have 
made  many  attempts  to  reform  it,  but  their  efforts 
have  been  frustrated  by  various  interests.  A  forced 
paper  currency  is  in  circulation,  which  fluctuates 
considerably ;  the  paper  peso  usually  hovers  in  value 
between  lod.  and  i2d.  The  unit  of  value,  which  is 
used  for  reckoning  the  customs  and  international 
transactions  generally,  is  the  gold  peso,  but  it  is  merely 
a  standard  of  value,  not  a  circulating  medium.  Its 
value  is  i8d.  The  urgently  needed  reform  of  calling 
in  the  forced  notes  and  establishing  the  gold  peso  as 
the  sole  unit  of  value  has  been  repeatedly  postponed. 
The  last  postponement  was  till  the  year  1915.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  serious  intention  to  improve 
matters. 

RAILWAYS 

Chile  is  not  an  easy  country  for  railway  construc- 
tion ;  the  mountains  leave  little  level  ground,  and  most 
of  the  lines  are  short,  running  either  west  to  east  or 
from  one  neighbouring  port  to  another.  However, 
Chile  has  been  extremely  enterprising  in  railway  con- 
struction, and  the  Copiapo-Caldera  Railway,  begun  in 
1848  and  finished  in  1851,  was  the  first  line  ever  built 
in  South  America.  The  only  trans-continental  line  is 
that  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso,  and  the  Arica- 
La  Paz  Railway,  opened  in  1912,  is  a  remarkable 
achievement.  The  most  useful,  however,  is  the  Longi- 
tudinal Railway,  which  is  now  nearly  complete  and 
supplies  a  long-standing  need.  Until  very  recently 
the  Chilian  high-road  north  of  Valparaiso  was  the 
sea ;  southward  there  was  communication  as  far  as 
Osorno,  which  has  recently  been  extended  to  Puerto 


162       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Montt  in  Llanquihue,  thus  completing  the  southern 
section.  The  northern  part  was  not  begun  till  1908, 
and  immense  progress  has  been  made  with  it.  There 
is  only  one  portion  unfinished— that  from  Arica  to 
Jazpampa,  and  this  missing  link  is  only  150  miles  in 
length.  The  gauge  is  metre.  The  utility  of  a  line 
which  connects  all  the  transverse  railways  of  the 
country  may  easily  be  imagined.  The  total  length 
is  a  little  over  1,800  miles,  and  the  greatest  altitude 
reached  is  at  Illapel — 4,585  feet.  A  detailed  account 
of  the  railways  will  be  found  under  the  headings  of 
the  towns.  The  country  has  open  3,952  miles  of 
railway. 

FINANCE  AND  GOVERNMENT 

Chilian  finance  is  complicated  by  the  double  mone- 
tary standard.  In  1912  the  revenue  was  101,050,000 
gold  pesos,  and  189,200,000  paper  pesos.  The  expen- 
diture was  71,358,378  gold,  281,128,726  paper.  The 
external  debt  was  336,781,600  gold ;  the  internal  was 
180,593,372.  The  credit  of  Chile  stands  high  in  the 
money  market.  The  army  and  navy  of  Chile  are 
excellent,  and  as  it  is  an  accepted  policy  to  keep 
them  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  the  expenditure  on 
armaments  is  considerable. 

Chile  has,  like  other  South  American  Republics,  a 
President,  Senate,  and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  it 
differs  from  most  in  being  highly  centralized.  Con- 
gress, which  is  swayed  by  powerful  families,  has  more 
power  than  the  President.  Chile  is,  like  every  other 
South  American  Republic,  an  oligarchy,  and  the 
Government  habitually  interferes  with  every  election. 
Chile  has  had  a  more  tranquil  history  than  any  of  her 
neighbours,  and  has  enjoyed  better  government ; 
there  is,  however,  a  considerable  amount  of  dis- 
content. 


CHILE  163 

HISTORY 

The  history  of  Chile  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
in  South  America,  but  only  a  brief  recital  is  possible 
in  the  space  at  our  disposal.  The  name  is  probably 
derived  from  the  ancient  Indian  word  tchile,  signifying 
snow.  The  land  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Arau- 
canians,  a  fierce  race,  against  whom,  however,  the 
Incas  of  Peru  made  headway  and  extended  their 
empire  southwards,  probably  as  far  as  the  River  Maule, 
which  is  some  distance  north  of  the  present  Concep- 
cion.  When  Pizarro  had  conquered  Peru,  he  sent 
the  valiant  Pedro  de  Valdivia  southwards  on  an  adven- 
turous expedition,  and  Santiago  was  founded  in  1541. 
The  Araucanians  proved  themselves  the  most  formid- 
able opponents  the  Spaniards  had  ever  met,  but  in 
1550  he  defeated  them  in  the  bloody  and  decisive 
battle  of  Andalien  and  afterwards  founded  the  city 
of  Concepcion,  not  far  from  the  site  of  his  victory. 
Two  years  later  he  founded  the  pleasant  city  to  the 
south  which  still  bears  his  name.  But  Valdivia, 
though  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Spanish  conquerors, 
grew  reckless  with  success,  and,  while  pursuing  the 
skilled  Araucanian  leader,  Lantaro,  was  by  him  over- 
whelmed and  killed  near  Tucapel.  In  spite  of  this 
reverse  the  Spaniards  held  grimly  on,  and  Mendoza, 
the  next  Governor  of  mark,  defeated  and  slew  both 
Lantaro  and  his  successor  Caupolican.  But  the  Arau- 
canians still  resisted  stubbornly,  and  the  troubles  of 
the  Spaniards  were  greatly  increased  by  a  navigator 
whom  they  called  "  Francisco  Drac,"  a  native  of 
Plymouth,  a  man  of  low  condition,  but  a  skilful 
seaman  and  a  valiant  pirate. 

Drake's  marvellous  voyage  (1577-80),  during 
which  he  landed  at  Valparaiso  and  Serena,  gave  the 
Spaniards  a  sense  of  insecurity  which  lasted  as  long 


1 64       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH   AMERICA 

as  they  retained  their  colonial  Empire,  because  they 
never  knew  when  some  daring  sea-dog  might  choose 
to  intercept  their  treasure-ships  or  vessels  carrying 
reinforcements  from  one  point  of  disturbance  to 
another.  For  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  the 
history  of  Chile  is  chiefly  a  history  of  the  relations 
between  the  Spaniards  and  Indians — attempts  to  tame 
them  through  the  Jesuits  and  other  mild  means  alter- 
nating with  sanguinary  measures  of  repression — until 
in  1722  a  treaty  was  made  by  which  the  land  south 
of  the  River  Bio  Bio  was  left  to  the  Araucanians, 
while  Chile  northwards  was  committed  to  a  Spanish 
Governor  who  was  under  the  Viceroy  of  Peru.  The 
Araucanians,  as  a  separate  nation,  are  now  nearly 
extinct,  but  many  of  them  fused  with  their  conquerors, 
with  the  result  that  the  Chilian  is  the  best  fighting  man 
in  South  America.  Like  all  other  Spanish  dominions, 
Chile  suffered  much  from  the  oppressive  commercial 
policy  which  hampered  trade  and  industries  in  the 
supposed  interests  of  the  mother  country,  but  there 
was  considerable  progress  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  Spanish  policy  rapidly  became  more  liberal. 
Much  of  this  improvement  is  due  to  the  Irish  adven- 
turer, Don  Ambrosio  O'Higgins,  who  began  life  as  a 
beggar-boy  in  Sligo.  Having  drifted  to  the  Pacific 
coast,  he  gradually  worked  his  way  upwards,  and 
gained  surprising  success  as  manager  of  the  Arau- 
canians,  to  whom  he  dealt  out  mercy  and  justice  in 
royal  fashion.  Among  many  good  acts,  he  made  a 
road  from  Santiago  to  Valparaiso,  and  was  rightly 
rewarded  with  the  governorship  of  Chile  in  1788. 
O'Higgins  ended  his  adventurous  and  beneficial 
career  as  Viceroy  of  Peru,  in  which  office  he  died  in 
1800  at  the  age  of  eighty.  But  not  even  good  adminis- 
tration and  liberal  concessions  could  suppress  the 
excitement  which  spread  over  South  America  as  the 


CHILE  165 

result  of  the  revolt  of  the  American  Colonies  and 
the  French  Revolution.  The  breaking  away  from 
Spain  was  bound  to  come,  and  in  it  the  chief  part  was 
taken  by  Bernardo  O'Higgins,  illegitimate  son  of  the 
old  Viceroy.  The  history  of  the  revolution  in  Chile  is 
not  unlike  that  in  other  parts  of  South  America.  The 
Chilians  declared  themselves  independent  in  1810  ; 
there  was  fierce  righting  with  the  Spanish  loyalists, 
but  the  help  of  San  Martin,  the  great  Argentine 
general,  enabled  the  Revolutionists  to  gain  a  decisive 
victory  at  Chacabuco  in  1817,  and  shortly  afterwards 
the  battle  of  Maipu  effectively  crushed  the  power  of 
Spain  in  Chile.  The  story  of  Lord  Cochrane's  exploits 
in  aid  of  Chilian  independence  is  well  known. 
O'Higgins  had  been  the  liberator  of  Chile  and  was 
made  Dictator,  but  in  1823  he  was  deposed  and  driven 
into  exile  by  an  ungrateful  mob,  thus  sharing  the  fate 
of  Bolivar.  For  some  years  anarchy  prevailed,  but 
in  1831  General  Prieto  came  to  the  front,  and  in  1833 
drew  up  a  highly  centralized  Constitution.  Then  for 
more  than  forty  years  Chile,  in  sharp  contrast  to  most 
of  its  neighbours,  was  fortunate  enough  to  experience 
a  succession  .of  firm  Governments,  and  enjoyed  in 
consequence  tolerable  prosperity  and  tranquillity. 

In  the  seventies,  the  discovery  that  the  nitrate  deserts 
were  of  untold  value  led  to  quarrels  between  Chile, 
Peru  and  Bolivia.  On  the  whole,  Bolivia  must  bear 
the  blame  for  embroiling  Peru  in  a  disastrous  war 
with  Chile  (1879-83).  Peru  made  a  gallant  resist- 
ance, but  was  completely  defeated,  first  by  sea  and 
then  by  land.  The  immense  importance  of  sea  power 
in  South  America  was  conclusively  demonstrated,  for 
Chile  could  make  no  use  of  her  army  against  Peru 
until  the  latter's  fleet  was  destroyed.  This  done,  the 
Chilians  invaded  Peru  with  a  strong  army,  and  on 
January  13,  1881,  defeated  the  Peruvians  with  [great 


1 66       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

slaughter  at  Chorillos,  a  few  miles  from  Lima,  and 
four  days  later,  after  further  fighting,  they  entered  the 
capital.  The  soldiers  fought  with  conspicuous  bravery, 
but  sullied  their  victory  by  unnecessary  cruelties.  A 
long  guerilla  war  followed,  but  a  peace  was  made  in 
December,  1883,  by  which  Bolivia  lost  Antofagasta 
and  thus  all  access  to  the  sea,  while  Tarapaca  (capital 
Iquique)  was  unconditionally  ceded  by  Peru  to  Chile. 
Peru  also  handed  over  Arica  and  Tacna  to  Chile  for 
ten  years  on  somewhat  vague  terms,  and  these  last 
two  Provinces,  which  Chile  still  holds,  have  been  a 
constant  bone  of  contention  between  the  two  countries. 
Before  the  war  the  Conservatives  had  been  in  power  ; 
after  that  event  the  Liberals  had  their  turn,  but 
national  affairs  went  less  smoothly.  In  1891  President 
Balmaceda  attempted  to  establish  a  tyranny  and 
caused  a  fierce  revolution,  which  entailed  much  blood- 
shed and  ended  in  his  defeat  and  suicide.  Admiral 
Jorje  Montt  became  President  and  ruled  well,  but 
unfortunately  the  creditable  efforts  which  he  made  to 
improve  the  currency  were  thwarted  by  Congress. 
The  boundary  troubles  with  Argentina  are  noticed 
under  the  heading  of  that  Republic.  Among  the  most 
important  events  of'  recent  years  were  the  wool  boom 
in  the  south,  which  collapsed  early  in  1905,  and  the 
great  earthquake  which  devastated  Valparaiso  in  August, 
1906.  The  people  of  Valparaiso  and  the  Government 
met  this  calamity  with  resolution  and  energy,  and  its 
ravages  were  soon  repaired.  In  1906,  Pedro  Montt 
was  elected  President,  and,  proving  himself  more 
capable  than  several  of  his  recent  predecessors,  devoted 
himself  to  the  task  of  developing  the  resources  of  the 
country,  so  that  the  humdrum  politics  of  railways, 
nitrate  and  currency  became  of  more  importance 
than  wars  or  revolution. 

In   1909  the  nitrate  combination,  which   restricted 


CHILE  167 

the  output,  came  to  an  end.  In  1910  the  railway 
from  Arica  to  La  Paz,  in  Bolivia,  was  begun,  and  thus 
was  redeemed  a  promise  made  to  Bolivia  in  1905,  when 
that  Republic  ceded  all  claims  to  a  port  or  coast  strip 
on  condition  that  the  railway  should  be  built.  Earlier 
in  the  same  year  the  last  link  had  been  made  in  the 
Transandine  Railway,  which  thus  gives  uninterrupted 
communication  between  Buenos  Aires  and  Valparaiso. 
Unfortunately,  towards  the  end  of  the  year  Pedro 
Montt's  career  of  usefulness  was  cut  short  by  death, 
and  he  was  succeeded  by  Senor  Barros  Luco. 

Chile's  main  weakness  is,  firstly,  that  Congress  is 
dominated  by  an  oligarchy  whose  want  of  disinterested- 
ness is  reflected  by  the  state  of  the  currency,  which 
enables  a  fortunate  few  to  benefit  by  high  prices,  and 
secondly,  the  state  of  education,  which  may  be  judged 
by  the  fact  that  75  per  cent,  of  the  population  are 
classed  as  illiterate.  Nevertheless,  whatever  blemishes 
it  may  possess,  the  Republic  is  stable  and  flourishing. 

FROM  PUNTA  ARENAS  NORTHWARDS  BY 

SEA 

• 

PUNTA   ARENAS 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company's 
steamers  and  those  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany call  twice  a  month  on  the  outward  and  twice  a  month 
on  the  homeward  voyage.  The  Lamport  and  Holt  and  the 
Kosmos  (German)  call  about  once  a  month. 

RAILWAYS — None,  except  a  line  of  5  miles  to  the  coalfields  at 
Loreta. 

HOTELS— Royal  Hotel  (English),  good  ;  Kosmos  (German),  gives 
very  fair  accommodation  ;  Hotel  de  France  (French  cook- 
ing), the  catering  is  good.  The  terms  of  all  three  are  from 
73.  to  i os.  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Captain  C.  A.  Milward. 

BANK — Anglo-South  American  Bank. 

NEWSPAPERS — Chile  Austral,  El  Cotnercio,  El  Magel  lanes. 


1 68       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

This  flourishing  place,  with  a  population  of  12,000, 
stands  on  York  Peninsula  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
and  is  nearer  to  the  South  Pole  than  any  other  town 
in  the  world.  It  is  a  most  important  place  of  call,  and 
its  communications  are  described  as  being  "  with  the 
outside  world  entirely  by  water,  within  Patagonia  by 
horse  or  carriage."  The  roadstead  affords  good  anchor- 
age, and  there  is  a  mole  200  feet  long  with  a  steam 
crane.  It  is  distant  1,425  miles  by  sea  from  Valparaiso. 
Punta  Arenas,  which  was  founded  in  1851,  is  the 
capital  of  the  Territory  of  Magellanes,  which  has  an 
area  of  64,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  less 
than  20,000.  It  has  become  noted  in  recent  years  for 
sheep-raising,  and  has  a  large  export  trade  in  wools, 
skins,  hides,  tallow,  and  frozen  meat.  Most  of  the 
wool  goes  to  the  United  Kingdom,  which  has  by  far 
the  largest  share  in  the  trade  of  Punta  Arenas. 

The  appearance  of  the  town  is  rapidly  improving ; 
the  wooden  buildings  are  being  replaced  by  permanent 
structures,  and  there  is  probably  no  healthier  town  in 
Chile.  The  death-rate  is  23*29,  the  birth-rate  45*23  per 
thousand.  As  for  the  climate,  70°  Fahr.  is  a  hot  day, 
10°  is  a  cold  day,  and  the  rainfall  is  more  or  less  as 
in  England  ;  the  climate  is  less  rainy  than  that  of 
Scotland. 

Pursuing  the  journey  northwards,  the  traveller 
reaches  in  four  days  Valdivia,  with  its  port,  Corral. 

VALDIVIA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — As  at  Punta  Arenas. 

RAILWAYS — A  State  Railway  line  runs  to  Antilhue,  about  20  miles 

eastwards,  where  the  main  line,  which  will  take  the  passenger 

to  any  part  of  Chile,  is  reached. 
HOTELS — Gran    Hotel    Colon,    Maipu    7 ;     Hotel    de    France  ; 

Daguerre  Hotel. 
BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  p.  M.  Nicholson, 


CHILE  169 

BANK — Banco  de  Chile. 

NEWSPAPERS — La  Libertad,  El  Correo  de  Valdivia,  and  German 
newspapers. 

Valdivia,  a  pleasant  town  situated  upon  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  12  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the 
capital  of  the  Province.  Its  population  is  22,598. 
Corral  is  a  tolerable  harbour  ;  goods  are  towed  thence 
to  Valdivia,  where  is  the  custom-house.  This  town 
was  gallantly  captured  by  Cochrane  in  1817.  In  1851 
it  was  colonized  by  Germans,  who  at  first  suffered  great 
hardships,  but  they  are  now  very  numerous  in  the 
Province.  It  is  an  important  agricultural  centre,  and 
exports  hides  and  wheat.  The  industries  are  con- 
siderable and  continue  to  make  progress.  There  are 
timber  factories,  tanneries,  flourmills,  breweries,  dis- 
tilleries, sugar  refineries,  and  there  is  shipbuilding  on 
a  small  scale.  The  climate  is  humid,  with  usually 
about  180  wet  days  in  the  year.  Valdivia  is  437  miles 
by  sea  from  Valparaiso.  The  next  place  of  importance 
is  Concepcion,  with  its  ports,  Talcahuano  and  Penco. 

CONCEPCION 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— As  at  Valdivia. 

RAILWAYS — The  ports  of  Talcahuano  and  Penco  have  short  lines 
to  Concepcion,  and  the  line  is  continued  from  Concepcion 
to  Rosendo,  which  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Chilian  State 
Railways.  The  railway  journey  to  Santiago  occupies  about 
12  hours. 

HOTEL— Gran  Hotel  Colon. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  W.  Borrowman.  At  Talcahuano — 
Vice-Consul,  H.  J.  Coke. 

BANKS — Anglo-South  American  Bank,  Banco  de  Chile. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Sur,  El  Pais. 

Talcahuano  is  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Concepcion, 
about  9  miles  from  Concepcion.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  Chile,  and  possesses  a  Government  dry- 


170       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

dock  656  feet  long  and  70  feet  wide.  It  is  a  military 
port.  Penco,  with  about  2,000  inhabitants,  is  10  miles 
from  Concepcion  ;  it  is  a  small  port,  but  is  chiefly 
known  as  a  watering-place.  Talcahuano  is  474  miles 
from  Valparaiso  by  sea. 

Concepcion,  the  finest  of  the  minor  cities  in  Chile, 
is  situated  on  the  River  Bio  Bio,  353  miles  distant  from 
Santiago.  It  has  a  population  of  60,000.  The  present 
city  is  not  upon  its  original  site  ;  it  was  first  founded  by 
the  daring  Pedro  de  Valdivia  in  1550.  After  his  defeat 
and  death  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Indians,  but  it  was 
soon  rebuilt  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  incessant 
wars  with  the  Araucanians.  In  1751  it  was  completely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Here  Bernard  O'Higgins 
proclaimed  the  independence  of  Chile  early  in  1818, 
and  it  was  the  scene  of  several  of  his  successful 
operations  against  the  Spaniards.  In  1835  ^  was  a£am 
laid  in  ruins  by  an  earthquake  which  is  described  by 
Darwin. 

Concepcion  is  a  well-built  town,  lighted  by  electricity 
and  served  by  a  street  railway,  and  it  possesses  a 
cathedral  and  several  fine  churches.  It  is  the  capital 
of  the  Province  of  the  same  name.  Being  the  centre 
of  one  of  the  best  agricultural  districts,  it  has  a  large 
trade,  and  exports  from  Talcahuano  grain,  nuts,  dried 
fruit,  timber,  skins  and  honey.  There  are  timber 
factories,  tanneries,  flourmills,  and  several  other 
industries.  The  ship  pursues  its  northern  course, 
passing  the  minor  port  of  Constitucion  (population 
13,914 — 322  miles  by  sea  from  Valparaiso),  and  reaches 
Valparaiso. 

VALPARAISO 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — All  the  ships  which  call  at  Punta  Arenas  and 
other  southern  ports  come  to  Valparaiso.  There  are 
frequent  sailings  of  merchant  ships  to  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  The  Cia,  Sud  Americana  de  Vapores  (Chilian) 


CHILE  171 

maintains  a  fortnightly  service    between    Valparaiso    and 

Panama. 
RAILWAYS— There  is  railway  communication  with  Santiago  to  the 

south-east,  Coquimbo  to  the  north,  and  Argentina  eastwards.1 

Valparaiso  has  railway-stations — the  Port,  Bella  Vista,  and 

Baron. 
HOTELS— The    Royal,    Calle  Esmeraldas,  49   (ios.-^2    a   day), 

best ;  the   Palace,  Calle   Blanco,  280  (8s.-£i  a  day) ;  Hotel 

Francia  e  Inglaterra,  Calle  Serrano,  47  ;  Hotel  Central,  Calle 

Victoria,  84,  with  restaurant. 
BRITISH    CONSUL — Consul-General,    A.    Maclean.     Vice-Consul, 

S.  G.  Irving. 
BANKS— London  and  River  Plate,  Anglo-South  American  Bank, 

Banco  de  Chile,  Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico. 
NEWSPAPERS— El  Mercurio,  La  Union,  El  Dia. 

Valparaiso,  the  chief  port  and  commercial  town  of 
Chile,  with  a  population  of  179,815,  is  situated  on  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  at  a  distance  of  62  miles  from 
Santiago.  It  was  founded  in  1536  by  Juan  de  Saavedra, 
but  long  remained  a  place  of  little  importance.  It  was 
sacked  by  Drake  in  1578  and  by  the  English  and 
Dutch  at  the  end  of  the  century.  It  became  a  munici- 
pality in  1791,  but  during  the  war  of  independence  had 
a  population  of  only  6,000.  In  1866  Admiral  Nunez 
bombarded  the  town  for  three  and  a  half  hours  and 
destroyed  property  worth  two  millions  sterling.  But 
the  most  terrible  catastrophe  is  of  recent  date,  being 
the  earthquake  of  August  16,  1906,  when  probably 
1,000  persons  were  killed  and  as  many  more  sustained 
injuries,  while  the  damage  to  property  amounted  to 
-£20,000. 

Valparaiso,  or  the  Valley  of  Paradise,  owes  its  name, 
not  to  its  own  natural  amenities,  but  owing  to  the  fact 
that  Juan  de  Saavedra  was  born  at  a  village  of  that 
name  in  Spain.  It  has  a  good  climate,  but  otherwise 
is  not  an  attractive  place.  Being  the  terminus  of  the 

1  The  journey  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso  is  described 
in  the  Argentine  section. 


A    GUIDE   T<&   SOUTH    AMERICA 

railway  from  Buenos  Aires  and  the  port  of  a  rich 
district,  it  has  an  enormous  trade,  and  presents  an 
aspect  more  business-like  than  beautiful.  The  terrible 
earthquake  of  1906  did  much  to  spoil  its  appearance, 
which  has  many  natural  advantages,  for  Valparaiso  is 
situated  on  a  fine  bay,  3  miles  across,  and  backed 
by  hills  of  moderate  height,  which  would  be  imposing 
if  crowned  by  handsome  buildings.  However,  earth- 
quakes and  good  architecture  do  not  go  well  together. 

The  streets  of  Valparaiso  are  narrow  and  poor,  and 
the  shops  below  the  level  which  would  be  expected 
in  such  a  flourishing  town— below  those  of  Lima,  for 
example.  In  spite  of  its  immense  shipping  traffic,  the 
harbour  is  only  moderately  good,  being  exposed  to 
the  north  and  only  partially  sheltered  from  the  south 
winds,  but  fortunately  the  Pacific  here  does  not  belie 
its  name.  In  rough  weather  it  is  a  troublesome 
landing-place,  for  travellers  are  always  taken  ashore 
in  boats,  and  the  charges  are  then  exorbitant.  Under 
normal  conditions  the  fare  does  not  exceed  one  paper 
peso.  Great  improvements  are  being  carried  out, 
including  a  large  breakwater  to  protect  the  north-west 
side  and  long  rows  of  wharves.  The  cost  is  to  be 
.£2,800,000,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  works  will  be 
finished  in  1919.  Nevertheless,  Valparaiso  retains  all 
its  historical  dignity  and  life  as  the  port  of  the  Chilian 
capital  Santiago,  and  is  full  of  traders,  among  whom 
the  English  take  a  prominent  place  and  are  at  last 
beginning  to  take  steps  to  maintain  their  threatened 
commercial  ascendancy,  in  accordance  with  advice 
that  has  for  many  years  been  showered  upon  them  by 
innumerable  authors,  journalists,  and  Consuls. 

Most  of  the  imports  of  Chile  come  through 
Valparaiso,  but  the  export  trade  is  not  large,  because 
the  town  is  not  a  nitrate  port.  It  has  the  usual 
theatres,  places  of  amusement,  and  public  buildings 


CHILE  173 

which  might  be  expected  in  a  place  of  its  importance, 
but  unless  the  traveller  has  business  here  he  will  not  be 
likely  to  make  a  long  stay.  There  is,  however,  a  large 
English  community  whose  headquarters  are  the  Albion 
Club.  Valparaiso  has  an  excellent  service  of  electric 
tramcars  which  connect  it  with  Vina  del  Mar,  some 
4  miles  distant.  This  popular  suburb  and  watering- 
place  has  a  good  hotel  (the  Grand)  and  sea-bathing, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  beautiful.  It  is,  however,  a 
favourite  health  resort,  and  many  people  who  have 
business  in  Valparaiso  live  here.  In  October, 
November  and  February  there  is  racing  at  the 
Cancha. 

SANTIAGO 

RAILWAYS — Santiago  is  easily  accessible  by  rail  from  Valparaiso, 
the  journey  taking  3  hours  and  40  minutes  by  the  best  trains. 
It  has  also  main  line  communication  with  the  south  ;  the 
journey  to  Tacahuano  occupies  about  n  hours.  The 
principal  station  is  the  Central,  and  there  are  also  the  Bodega 
del  Norte  and  the  Bodega  del  Sur. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Oddc^  Calle  Ahumado,  327  (143.  a  day).  Rooms 
can  beo  btained  without  board  for  6s.  a  day.  Grand  Hotel, 
Calle  Huerfanos,  1164,  with  about  the  same  charges.  These 
two  are  the  best  hotels,  and  the  Oddo  has  the  better  cuisine 
of  the  two.  Hotels  with  lower  charges  are  the  Hotel  Fornos, 
the  Royal  Hotel,  and  the  Hotel  de  Francia. 

BRITISH  MINISTER— Vacant. 

CONSUL — Consul,  Allen  C.  Kerr. 

BANKS — Anglo-South  American  Bank,  Banco  de  Chile. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Mercurio,  El  Diario   Illustrado,  La  Manana, 
La   Union,  La  Prensa,   El  Industrial  (evening),    The  South 
Pacific  Mail.     It  is  said  that  sixty  newspapers  and  periodicals 
are  published  here. 
There  is  an  English  Church. 

Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  has  a  population  of 
332,724.  Founded  in  1541  by  Pedro  de  Valdivia  and 
named  by  him  after  St.  James,  the  patron  saint  of 
Spain,  it  has  always  been  a  handsome  and  prosperous 


174       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

city.  It  suffered  terribly  from  an  earthquake  in  1647. 
During  the  Revolution  it  early  declared  itself  on  the 
popular  side,  but  the  history  of  Chile  belongs  to  the 
seacoast,  and  there  are  not  many  striking  events  to 
record  in  connection  with  Santiago. 

The  city  stands  in  a  pleasant  tableland,  1,860  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  best  time  to  visit  Santiago  is 
in  the  summer,  between  October  and  April.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about  58°  Fahr.  A  temperature 
of  94°  Fahr.  is  considered  very  high  and  33°  Fahr. 
very  low.  The  death-rate  is  about  50  per  thousand  ; 
neither  Santiago  nor  any  other  town  in  Chile  is  healthy, 
owing  to  defective  sanitation  and  the  careless  habits  of 
Chilian  mothers.  The  city  is  lighted  with  electric 
light  and  has  a  good  system  of  electric  tramcars,  and 
the  streets  are  broad  and  well  paved.  Both  in 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago  the  tram-conductors  are 
women.  The  principal  boulevard,  the  Alameda  de  las 
Delicias,  is  350  feet  wide,  flanked  by  handsome  houses, 
and  extends  for  2  miles  through  the  city.  The 
Parque  Cousino  has  an  area  of  201  acres.  The 
principal  square  is  the  Plaza  da  Armas. 

The  Cerro  de  Santa  Lucia,  a  rugged  rock  over- 
hanging Santiago, -and  considered  the  glory  of  the 
city,  has  been  spoilt  by  garish  buildings,  but  it  gives 
a  fine  view  of  the  Andes.  As  at  Buenos  Aires,  a  very 
fashionable  crowd  is  to  be  seen  in  the  afternoons 
during  the  season.  The  capital  has  a  glamour  which 
attracts  Chilians  to  it,  and  many  think  that  to  have 
a  handsome  house  in  a  fashionable  quarter  and  to 
drive  in  handsome  equipages  through  its  boulevards, 
is  the  sum  of  human  felicity.  Among  the  busiest  of 
the  streets  is  the  Calle  de  Estado,  containing  fine 
shops,  where  European  luxuries  are  to  be  obtained 
at  a  high  price.  This  street  connects  the  Avenida 
de  las  Delicias  with  the  Plaza  da  Armas,  where  is 


CHILE  175 

the  Cathedral.  Nearly  all  the  houses  in  Santiago  are 
of  stucco,  and  the  best  effects  are  got  out  of  this 
unpromising  material ;  many  of  the  buildings  are  rose- 
pink.  Most  of  them  are  built  in  the  comfortable 
old  Spanish  style  round  a  patio  or  courtyard. 

The  Cathedral  was  originally  built  by  Pedro  de 
Valdivia,  but  the  present  building,  which  has  no  very 
remarkable  features,  belongs  to  the  eighteenth  century. 
One  or  two  of  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  of  Santiago 
date  from  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Houses  of  Con- 
gress are  a  usual  example  of  South  American  archi- 
tecture, with  graceful  Corinthian  porticoes,  and  the 
Government  Palace  is  a  building  without  much 
distinction.  There  is  a  Municipal  Theatre.  The 
Biblioteca  Nacional  contains  120,000  volumes  and 
6,500  manuscripts,  some  of  which  are  of  great  value, 
having  been  obtained  from  various  archives  at  Lima 
and  elsewhere.  The  National  Museum  in  the  Park 
of  the  Quinta  Normal  has  an  excellent  natural  history 
collection.  The  University  of  Chile  was  founded  in 
1843  and  has  five  faculties — Theology,  Law  and 
Political  Science,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  Physical 
Science  and  Mathematics,  Philosophy,  Philology  and 
Fine  Arts.  Education  is  at  a  low  ebb  in  South 
America,  but  the  standard  of  culture  among  the  upper 
classes  is  above  the  Latin-American  average.  Chile 
has  been  more  distinguished  in  jurisprudence  and 
political  science  than  in  the  humanities.  Lastarria, 
a  pupil  of  the  Venezuelan  Bello,  was  a  well-known 
political  philosopher  in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic. 
It  is  regrettable  that  so  fine  a  city,  with  a  delightful 
climate  and  situation,  should  be  unhealthy,  but  Chile, 
which  should  be  the  healthiest  of  all  the  ten  Republics, 
is,  in  fact,  the  unhealthiest,  and  the  death-rate  of  Val- 
paraiso is  still  higher  than  that  of  Santiago.  The 
causes  have  been  already  indicated.  The  British  work- 


i;6       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

ing  man,  it  should  be  added,  is  always  warned  not 
to  go  to  Chile,  as  the  conditions  are  such  as  make 
it  impossible  for  him  to  work  side  by  side  with  the 
native  labourer.  In  the  higher  grades  of  commerce 
and  industry  there  are  many  openings,  but  for  the 
manual  labourer  none.  The  cost  of  living  is  very 
high,  although  prices  are  a  little  lower  than  in  Argen- 
tina or  Brazil. 


THE   NITRATE    REGION 

The  traveller  who  wishes  to  see  the  Nitrate  Region 
will  retrace  his  steps  to  Valparaiso  and  take  one  of 
the  comfortable  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co.  to 
Iquique.  One  of  the  slower  steamers  which  make 
numerous  halts  may  be  recommended,  for  the  voyage 
is  pleasant,  the  sea  usually  calm,  the  climate  mild, 
and  the  leisurely  mode  of  proceeding,  with  the 
occasional  chance  of  landing  at  a  small  port,  has 
considerable  charm.  The  day  after  leaving  Valparaiso 
Coquimbo  is  reached. 

COQUIMBO 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — As  at  other  Chilian  ports. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  a  line  59  miles  long  from  this  place,  by  La 
Serena,  to  Rivadavia,  and  another  to  Ovalle,  61  miles  distant, 
whence  Santiago  and  Valparaiso  can  be  reached. 

HOTELS — Unpretending. 

CONSUL — Consul,  G.  L.  Ansted. 

BANKS — Anglo-South  American  Bank,  Banco  de  Chile. 

NEWSPAPER — El  Condor. 

Coquimbo,  the  port  of  the  Province  of  that  name, 
which  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Chile,  stands  on  the 
bay  of  the  same  name;  its  population  is  12,106. 
Coquimbo  is  one  of  the  richest  districts  in  Chile, 
and  produces  copper,  iron,  gold,  silver  and  lead.  It 


CHILE  177 

has  a  well-protected  anchorage  with  a  good  passenger 
mole  and  wharf ;  ships  anchor  about  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  from  the  shore.  It  is  not  an  attractive  town. 
La  Serena,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Coquimbo, 
which  is  only  5  miles  distant,  can  be  easily  reached 
by  rail.  It  is  a  pleasant  place  and  has  some  small 
industries.  Coquimbo  is  198  miles  north  of  Valparaiso. 
The  steamer  touches  at  Huasco,  famous  for  raisins, 
with  an  important  industry  of  copper-smelting,  and 
Caldera,  the  port  of  Copiapo,  which  also  has  smelting 
works.  The  same  is  to  be  said  of  Chanaral,  where 
a  halt  may  be  made.  Both  these  places  have  railway 
connexion  with  Copiapo.  Taltal,  the  most  southerly 
of  the  nitrate  ports,  is  a  place  of  greater  importance, 
but  it  is  one  of  the  most  desolate  places  imaginable. 
Here  is  a  British  Vice-Consul.  The  next  halting-place 
is  Antofagasta. 

ANTOFAGASTA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — As  at  other  Chilian  ports. 

RAILWAYS — Here  trains  start  for  La  Paz  in  Bolivia  by  Uyuni 

and  Oruro.     There  is  also  communication  with  the  northern 

port  of  Mejillones. 

HOTEL — Grand  Hotel  (from  ys.  a  day). 
CONSUL— Consul,  H.  W.  W.  Bird. 

BANKS — Anglo-South  American  Bank.     Banco  de  Chile. 
NEWSPAPERS — El  Industrial,  La  Prensa,  El  Mercurio. 

Antofagasta,  a  flourishing  town  and  port,  with  a 
population  of  32,496,  is  the  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Antofagasta,  which  was  wrested  from  Bolivia  in 
the  war  of  1879-83.  The  town  is  well  built  and 
has  electric  tramcars.  The  distance  by  rail  to  Oruro 
in  Bolivia  is  573  miles.  Copper-smelting  is  carried 
on  and  the  town  is  an  important  centre  of  the  nitrate 
industry. 

After  a  sail  of  about  20  hours  Iquique  is  reached. 


i/8       A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

IQUIQUE 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— As  at  other  Chilian  ports. 

RAILWAYS— The  Nitrate   Railway  connects  the  town  with   the 

Nitrate  Pampa  and  the  ports  of  Patillos,  Caleta  Buena  and 

Pisagua. 
HOTELS— Phcenix  (about    los.    a   day),  Europa  and  Terminus. 

The  Phcenix  is  the  most  frequented,  but  the  accommodation 

is  on  a  modest  scale. 
CONSUL— Consul,  E.  F.  Hudson. 
BANK— Anglo-South  American  Bank. 
NEWSPAPERS — La  Patria,  El  Diario,  El  Tarapaca. 
There  is  an  English  Church. 

Iquique,  the  second  port  of  Chile  and  the  capital 
of  Tarapaca,  is  an  attractive  town  and  well  laid  out, 
although  it  owes  all  its  vegetation  to  irrigation,  being 
situated  in  the  great  nitrate  desert,  whose  bare  black 
mountains  rise  up  behind  the  town.  There  is  a  large 
and  hospitable  English  colony,  whose  members  are 
almost  all  engaged  in  nitrate.  There  is  an  excellent 
English  club,  a  race-course,  and  a  sports  club,  where 
all  kinds  of  games  are  played.  The  population  is 
44^71. 

THE    NITRATE    OFICINA 

The  Nitrate  Railway  climbs  from  Iquique  up  the 
hills  into  the  Pampa,  as  the  nitrate  plateaux  are  called. 
A  railway  journey  of  5  hours  will  bring  the  traveller 
into  the  heart  of  the  nitrate  region,  where,  if  he  has  an 
introduction,  he  will  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  an 
oficina,  or  combined  mine  and  factory.  It  may  be 
added  that  picture  postcards  give  a  false  idea  of  the 
nitrate  desert.  Being  coloured  in  Germany  by  artists 
who  cannot  imagine  a  place  totally  destitute  of 
herbage,  they  usually  contain  neat  little  patches  of 
green  representing  trees  and  grass.  In  fact,  there  is 
not  a  blade  of  grass  in  the  whole  Pampa,  still  less  a 
tree.  The  compensations  for  those  who  live  here  are 


CHILE  179 

the  invigorating  air  of  the  desert  and  polo,  and,   of 
course,  they  are  allowed  periodical  leave  to  Iquique, 
but  many  prefer  the  Pampa  to  the  town.     The  process 
is  as  follows  :  The  raw  material  (caliche)  is  found  in 
the  ground,  usually  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet,  but  if  the 
caliche  is  very  rich  in  nitrate,  diggings  may  be  made 
to  about  50  feet.     A  paying  percentage  is  15,  while  40 
is  considered  extremely  rich.     A  hole  is  drilled  and 
the  ground  is  disturbed  by  blasting  powder,  then  the 
huge  fragments  into    which   the   ground   breaks   are 
further  divided  by  dynamite.     These  large  blocks  are 
then  broken  by  hand  into  blocks  several  times  the  size 
of  ordinary  bricks,  and   loaded  into  carts  which  are 
brought  on  rails  by  mule  to  the  oficina.     The  caliche 
looks  like  white  quartz,   but  is  much  softer.     At  the 
oficina,  after  being  broken  into  the  size  of  road  metal 
by  machinery,  it  is  placed  in  trucks  and  then  run  into 
tanks.     Here  it  is  treated  with  water  which,  having 
been   used   before,   and   therefore   containing   nitrate 
ingredients,   affords  a  quicker  process  than  ordinary 
water.     The  caliche  remains  in  this  boiling  water  for 
about    three    hours.     The    valuable    liquid  which    is 
obtained  is  run  off  into  tanks,  where  it  remains  for 
about  twelve  days.     It  is  used  over  and  over  again  for 
the  treatment  of  raw  material.     A  certain  amount  of 
solid  waste  is  left,  which  has  to  be  carted  away,  but 
the  valuable  residue  becomes  crystallized  and  as  white 
as  snow.     The  best  contains  less  than  2  per  cent  of 
salt,  i.e.  is  nearly  pure  nitrate.     It  is  spread  on  the 
ground  and  dried  in  the  sun  for  forty  days  ;  then  it  is 
put  into  sacks,  loaded  into  railway  trucks,  and  is  ready 
to  be  shipped.     The   oficina  here  described  employs 
400  men  ;  it  has  a  neighbour  under  the  same  manage- 
ment with  900,  and  there  are  great  numbers  similar  in 
size  and  organization  all  over  the  Pampa.     The  lowest 
wage  is  four  dollars   (about   three   shillings  and  six- 


i8o       A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

pence)  a  day,  and  some  labourers  get  ten.  There  are 
various  provisions  for  the  amusement  of  the  workers 
— football,  music-rooms,  and  the  like,  while  schools 
are  provided  for  the  children.  About  half  the  men 
are  married.  Meat,  which  costs  the  company  80  cents 
a  pound,  is  sold  to  them  for  40,  and  there  are  stores 
at  which  they  can  buy  various  articles.  Travelling 
circuses,  which  often  visit  the  qficinas,  do  excellent 
business.  The  men  have  no  trade  unions  :  an  attempt 
was  made  to  start  them,  but  the  officials  decamped 
with  the  money.  However,  labour  troubles  are  not 
unknown  ;  at  the  end  of  1907  great  discontent  was 
caused  by  the  fall  in  value  of  the  Chilian  dollar, 
although  the  men's  wages  were  raised  in  compensa- 
tion. In  this  connexion  an  extract  from  a  Consular 
Report  may  be  of  interest  :  "A  very  serious  strike 
occurred  in  December,  1907,  all  the  oficinas  in 
Tarapaca  closing  down  on  account  of  the  workmen 
abandoning  them  and  going  to  Iquique,  where  nearly 
20,000  were  collected.  The  strike  degenerated  into 
open  rebellion  against  the  authorities,  who  were  finally 
obliged  to  use  force  to  quell  the  riot,  some  500  men 
being  killed  and  wounded.  A  great  exodus  of  foreign 
workmen  took  place  after  this  event,  it  being  estimated 
that  nearly  40,000  Peruvians,  Bolivians  and  Argen- 
tines left  Tarapaca."  During  the  last  few  years, 
although  the  Chilian  Government  has  not  put  its 
coinage  in  order,  the  nitrate  industry  has  become 
steadily  more  prosperous,  and  little  is  now  heard  of 
labour  troubles.  The  most  satisfactory  workmen  are 
Chilians,  Peruvians  and  Bolivians  ;  English  labourers 
cannot  stand  the  climate.  After  a  few  years,  a  thrifty 
workman  can  earn  enough  to  go  and  live  in  the  south 
in  independence,  but,  in  fact,  most  workmen  save  up  a 
few  hundred  dollars  and  go  to  town  and  get  rid  of 
them  in  a  few  days.  The  gunpowder  for  blasting  is 


CHILE  181 

made  in  the  oficina.  The  best  machinery  is  English  ; 
many  Chilian  oficinas  use  native  machinery,  but  it 
is  unsatisfactory.  Often  the  refuse  from  Chilian 
machinery  contains  15  per  cent  of  nitrate,  while  that 
from  English  contains  only  2  or  3  per  cent.  Further 
facts  about  the  industry  and  the  combination  to  restrict 
output  (which  broke  down  in  1909),  can  be  obtained 
in  the  Consular  Reports.1 

ARICA   AND   TACNA 

After  having  seen  Iquique  and  the  Pampa,  the 
traveller  will  doubtless  take  the  P.S.N.  Company 
steamer  to  Mollendo  and  Callao.  It  may  probably 
miss  Pisagua  and  Arica,  both  smaller  nitrate  ports. 
Arica  has  been  well  described  by  Mathews  in  his 
book,  which  is  noted  in  the  Bolivian  section.  Arica 
has  4,866  inhabitants.  The  hotel  is  the  Americano 
(about  js.  6d.  a  day) ;  the  British  Consular  Officer  is 
Vice-Consul  G.  de  M.  Mackirdy.  It  is  connected  with 
Tacna  by  a  railway  line  (gauge  4  feet  8J-  inches)  of  30 
miles.  Much  more  important  is  the  Arica-La  Paz 
railway  which  has  been  lately  opened.  Begun  in 
1906,  it  was  finished  in  1913  ;  it  is  a  metre-gauge  line 
and  the  length  is  271  miles,  comparing  favourably 
witji  531  from  Mollendo  to  La  Paz  and  711  from 
Antofagasta  to  La  Paz.  The  contract  price  was 
.£2,245,000.  The  highest  point  is  13,986  feet. 

Arica  was  the  scene  of  a  great  battle  in  1879  between 
the  Chilian  and  Peruvian  armies.  Mining  is  the 
principal  industry. 

1  Further  attempts  to  restrict  the  supply  were  made  in  1913, 
but  it  is  always  extremely  difficult  to  induce  all  the  firms  to  join 
in  an  agreement.  The  following  is  the  world's  estimated  con- 
sumption : — 

1911  igi2  1913 

Tons  Tons  Tons 

2,313,450  2,485,860  2,464,540 


182       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Tacna,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  that  name,  is 
an  important  trade  centre  with  10,412  inhabitants. 
The  hotels  are  the  Americano  and  Reiteri  at  about 
75.  6d.  a  day.  The  British  Consular  Officer  is  Vice- 
Consul  A.  P.  Roe. 

Shortly  after  passing  Arica  the  vessel  glides  into 
Peruvian  waters,  and  the  journey  must  consequently 
be  resumed  in  the  Peruvian  section. 

Chile  is  the  subject  of  a  fair  number  of  books,  including — 

Scott-Elliot,  G.  F.    Chile.    London,  1907.    South  American  Series. 
Anonymous   (compiled    by   the    International   Bureau  of    Pan- 
American  Republics).     Chile.    Washington,  1906. 
Smith,  W.  Anderson.     Temperate  Chile.     London,  1899. 
Russell,  W.  H.    A  Visit  to  Chile.     London,  1890. 
Koebel,  W.  H.     Modern  Chile.     London,  1913. 


COLOMBIA 

Railways  shown  thus 

o  200  MILES 


COLOMBIA 

THE  Republic  of  Colombia  is  a  large  tract  of 
country  occupying  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
South  America,  with  a  seaboard  of  nearly  600  miles 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  more  than  700  miles  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  As  regards  both  area  and  population, 
there  was  long  considerable  uncertainty,  partly  owing 
to  the  boundary  disputes,  and  partly  owing  to  the  un-r 
developed  state  of  the  country,  which  makes  accurate 
census  returns  difficult,  but  the  census  of  1911  gives 
the  area  as  463,155  square  miles  and  the  population  as 
5,031,850.  The  latter  is  an  extremely  liberal  estimate. 
This  does  not  include  an  uncertain  mass  of  uncivilized 
Indians  who  must  be  rapidly  disappearing,  if  the  calcu- 
lations of  220,000  in  1881  and  130,000  in  1908  are 
correct.  Some  of  these  are  in  the  lowest  state  of 
savagery  and  employ  poisoned  arrows,  while  tribes 
in  the  forests  about  the  Putumayo  are  said  to  practise 
cannibalism.  Besides  these  there  are  at  least  200,000 
full-blooded  Indians  who  are  partially  civilized,  and 
some  of  these,  such  as  the  Chibchas  of  the  Bogota 
plateau,  are  fine  races  and  of  great  industrial  value. 
Of  the  Chibchas  Mr.  Petre  says  :  "As  porters  there 
are  few  finer  men  anywhere.  As  the  steamer  is  loading 
or  discharging,  men  hurry  up  or  down  the  steep  banks, 
each  carrying  his  140  lb.  bag  of  coffee  as  if  it  were  a 
trifle.  A  single  man  will  shoulder  and  walk  off  with 
a  packing  case  which  it  would  take  three  English  rail- 


1 86       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

way  porters  to  handle."  There  are  numbers  of  negroes 
on  the  hot  and  unhealthy  plains  of  the  coasts,  while 
the  highlands  of  the  interior  are  chiefly  inhabited  by 
the  pure-blooded  Spaniards,  who  are  not  very  numerous, 
and  the  mestizos,  who  are  a  cross  between  Indians  and 
Spaniards.  Mulattos  and  Zambos  (negro-Indians)  are 
not  uncommon,  for  the  Colombian  race  is  extraordi- 
narily mixed.  There  are  three  regions  :  firstly,  the 
coast,  zone,  hot  and  damp  and  usually  unhealthy  for 
Europeans ;  secondly,  the  mountain  district,  consisting 
of  three  huge  chains  running  northwards  and  north- 
east, one  of  which  reaches  as  far  north  as  the  Sierra 
Nevada  de  Santa  Marta  near  the  Caribbean  coast,  and 
offering  every  variety  of  climate;  and  thirdly,  the  large 
and  more  level  lands  about  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco,  which  are  partly  covered  with  dense 
forests  and  partly  with  grass  which  affords  excellent 
grazing.  The  climate  naturally  depends  more  on  the 
altitudes  than  the  latitude,  and  the  only  temperate 
regions  are  among  the  mountains,  upon  whose  plateaux 
is  to  be  found  such  civilization  as  exists  in  Colombia. 

There  is  constant  rain  along  the  Pacific  coast  and 
there  is  also  a  very  heavy  rainfall  on  the  low-lying 
Atlantic  sea-board.  The  heat  is  great  all  over  the 
plains,  but  less  intense  on  the  Pacific  side  than  on  the 
east  and  south.  The  plains  are  malarious. 

The  geology  of  Colombia,  which  is  imperfectly 
known,  is  igneous  and  volcanic  ;  the  oldest  rocks  are 
gneisses  and  schists,  which  are  overlaid  with  sandstone, 
slate  and  limestone.  The  Cordillera  of  Bogota  consists 
of  cretaceous  beds. 

The  mountains  of  Colombia  are  divided  into  three 
groups — the  Eastern,  Central,  and  Western  Cordillera. 
Among  the  eastern  range  the  highest  peaks  are  the 
Sierra  Nevada  de  Chita  and  Cocui,  which  are  each 
about  16,800  feet.  It  is  in  the  interior  of  the  country  that 


COLOMBIA  187 

the  most  extensive  mountain  system  and  the  greatest 
elevations  are  to  be  found,  including  Tolima  (18,400), 
Huila  (18,000),  Mesa  de  Herveo  (18,300)  and  Ruiz 
(17,400).  All  of  these  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
The  western  range  is  not  so  high,  Cerro  Torra,  which 
attains  the  height  of  12,600  feet,  being  the  principal. 

The  river  system  of  Colombia  deserves  careful  study. 
The  Magdalena  is  the  fourth  river  in  South  America, 
being  surpassed  only  by  the  Amazon,  the  Parana,  and 
the  Orinoco.  It  rises  on  the  borders  of  the  Depart- 
ments of  Popayan  and  Neiva,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
12,000  feet,  and  after  pursuing  a  course  of  more  than 
1,000  miles  falls  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  is  navig- 
able for  steamers  from  Neiva  to  its  mouth,  a  distance 
of  some  480  miles,  and  barges  can  proceed  to  a  much 
greater  distance.  It  has  been  called  the  Danube  of 
Colombia  and  until  recently  was  the  principal  and 
almost  the  only  means  of  internal  communication.  At 
a  point  about  200  miles  from  its  mouth  it  is  joined  by 
the  Cauca,  which  has  a  length  of  some  700  miles,  of 
which  about  300  are  navigable.  The  Atrato  (400  miles) 
drains  the  north-west,  being  fed  by  innumerable 
mountain  streams  and  having  therefore  a  huge  dis- 
charge of  water.  The  only  other  important  river 
which  reaches  the  Caribbean  Sea  is  the  Sinu,  draining 
the  flat  district  around  the  Gulf  of  Morosquillo.  Flow- 
ing into  the  Pacific  are  the  San  Juan  (200  miles),  the 
Patia  (250),  and  several  smaller  streams.  Many  of  the 
affluents  of  the  Amazon  pursue  their  course  through 
Colombia,  including  the  gigantic  Putumayo  and 
Yapura,  and  a  host  of  others.  The  Meta  flows  into 
the  Orinoco. 

The  lakes  of  Colombia  are  inconsiderable  and  there 
are  only  two  of  any  size — the  Mocoa  in  the  Department 
of  Pasto  and  the  Tota  in  the  Department  of  Santa 
Rosa.  Lake  Fuquene  is  remarkable  as  being  one  of 


188       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the  sacred  lakes  of  the  Chibchas,  who  used  to  throw 
treasure  into  its  waters. 

Colombia  has  a  rich  flora  ;  a  large  proportion  of  its 
area  is  covered  with  tropical  forest,  but  the  vegetation, 
of  course,  gradually  disappears  as  high  altitudes  are 
reached.  The  flora  has  been  described  as  rivalling  that 
of  Brazil  in  the  variety  of  its  plants  and  the  splendour 
of  its  foliage  and  blossoms.  The  palm  is  the  charac- 
teristic tree  and  its  varieties  are  numerous  and  valuable. 
A  common  variety  is  the  Mauritia  flexuosa,  and  the 
peach  palm  (Guilielma  speciosa)  grows  abundantly. 
The  tagua  (Phytolephas  macrocarpa)  is  found  along  the 
rivers  in  the  western  regions,  and  produces  the  ivory- 
nut,  which  is  of  high  commercial  value.  Yet  another 
palm  is  the  Carludovica  palmata,  whose  leaves  supply 
the  material  which  makes  the  so-called  Panama  hats. 
In  the  Central  Cordillera  palms  are  found  up  to  a 
height  of  10,000  feet.  The  forest  woods  are  numerous 
and  Colombia  has  a  large  variety  of  orchids. 

Among  the  fauna  of  Colombia,  the  puma,  the  jaguar 
and  two  species  of  bear  represent  the  fierce  animals, 
while  the  tapir  is  very  common.  Monkeys  abound  in 
the  forests  and  there  are  several  kinds  of  deer.  The 
bird  tribe  is  extremely  numerous.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  snakes,  some  of  which,  including  the  dreaded 
rattlesnake,  are  very  venomous,  and  boas  are  very 
common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Caqueta  ;  the 
rivers  swarm  with  caymans. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  Republic  as  compared  with  its 
neighbours  is  the  large  urban  population.  There  are 
probably  fifty  towns  with  a  population  of  5,000  and 
upwards,  and  several  of  these,  apart  from  Bogota, 
where  the  Spanish  literary  tradition  has  always  been 
strong,  are  distinguished  for  the  humanities  and  general 
culture,  in  which  the  Colombians  are  far  more  advanced 
than  in  politics  and  industry.  Lack  of  means  of  com- 


COLOMBIA  189 

munication  is,  however,  a  serious  impediment  to  every 
kind  of  progress.  The  following  are  the  principal 
towns  : — 

Population 

Bogota     120,000 

Medellin 71,004 

Barranquilla       48,907 

Cartagena            36,632 

Manizales            34>72° 

Sonson     29,346 

Pasto        27,760 

Cali                                                        ...  27,747 

Aguadas 26,423 

COMMERCE  AND  PRODUCTS 

In  1911  the  imports  were  valued  at  18,108,863  gold 
pesos.1 

In  1911  the  exports  were  valued  at.  22,375,899  gold 
pesos.  During  the  last  few  years  Colombia  has 
enjoyed  a  fair  amount  of  prosperity,  but  the  last  years 
of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
present  were  calamitous,  and  in  1905  the  foreign  com- 
merce was  smaller  than  in  1880.  The  chief  imports 
are  cotton  goods  and  manufactured  articles  generally, 
flour  and  machinery.  The  United  States  took  the  lead 
in  trade  until  quite  recently,  but  Great  Britain  is  now 
slightly  ahead.  The  chief  countries,  as  regards  imports, 
are  : — 

Gold  Pesos 

Great  Britain ...  5,838,789 

United  States 5,404,975 

Germany          3,242,634 

Spain     ...                               1,870,835 

France 1,718,747 

The  largest  export  was  coffee,  valued  at  9,475,448  gold 
pesos.  Gold  amounted  to  3,751,632,  and  bananas  to 

1  The  gold  peso  is  worth  45.  The  paper  peso,  which  alone 
circulates,  is  worth  about  £d. 


190       A   GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

2,172,000.  Other  considerable  items  were  :  hides, 
1,779,790  ;  hats,  1,088,821  ;  rubber,  900,886;  and 
ivory-nuts,  739,419.  Great  Britain  takes  more  than 
half  of  the  exports. 

The  Republic  is  celebrated  for  the  fine  quality  of  its 
coffee,  which  grows  in  almost  every  part  at  elevations 
of  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level  to  about 
7,000  feet.  It  flourishes  best  at  a  temperature  between 
59°  and  77°  Fahr.  The  best  coffee  districts  are 
Cundinamarca,  Santander,  Antioquia,  Caldas,  Cauca, 
and  Tolima.  The  coffee  from  Fusagasaga,  about 
40  miles,  south-west  of  Bogota,  and  from  Tolima 
commands  the  highest  price.  The  shrub  begins  to 
bear  after  about  three  years,  and  reaches  maturity 
in  six ;  the  average  product  is  about  one  pound 
yearly,  and  there  are  two  crops,  one  in  March 
and  one  in  October.  Coffee-growing  would  be  more 
profitable  if  the  means  of  communication  were  im- 
proved. 

The  wealth  of  Colombia  in  the  precious  metals  is 
prodigious,  and  the  Department  of  Antioquia  (capital 
Medellin)  is  the  chief  gold-producing  district,  but  the 
inaccessibility  of  the  Colombian  mines  makes  them 
difficult  to  work  at  a  profit.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  with  the  famous  emerald-mines  of  Muzo,  about 
100  miles  north  of  Bogota,  to  reach  which  "the 
traveller  is  obliged  to  pass  through  some  of  the  most 
dangerous  mountain  passes,  and  over  precipices  where 
a  false  step  would  dash  him  and  his  mule  to  destruc- 
tion "  (Millican).  These  mines  have  practically  a 
monopoly  in  supplying  the  world  with  emeralds,  for 
none  compare  in  colour  with  those  of  Muzo.  They 
are  worked  by  the  Government,  which  is  "reticent" 
as  to  the  profits,  but  these  are  undoubtedly  large,  and 
estimates  varying  from  -£100,000  to  ^"200,000  a  year 
have  been  given. 


COLOMBIA  191 

To  return  to  gold,  the  Frontino  and  Bolivia  Mining 
Company  exploit  several  rich  mines  in  Antioquia,  but 
it  is  believed  that  the  valley  of  the  San  Juan  is  evep, 
richer  in  auriferous  deposits,  and  much  gold  is  atso 
found  in  the  Cauca  Valley.  Since  the  conquest 
Antioquia  and  Cauca  have  each  produced  over  fifty 
millions  sterling  of  gold,  while  Tolima  has  yielded 
some  twelve  millions.  Platinum,  iron  and  silver  are 
also  found,  and  other  metals  are  extracted  in  smaller 
quantities.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Colombia  is  un- 
doubtedly great  and  very  imperfectly  developed. 
There  are  valuable  salt-mines  at  Zipaquira. 

Although  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  condition, 
almost  any  kind  of  crop  can  be  raised  at  the  various 
elevations.  Banana  cultivation  (near  Santa  Marta)  is 
increasing,  and  the  grazing  industry  is  of  some 
importance.  Tobacco  is  largely  grown  in  the  Cauca 
Valley  and  is  principally  exported  to  Germany,  while 
cotton  is  cultivated  in  Antioquia  and  along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Tropical  products,  especially  rubber  and  vege- 
table nuts,  are  largely  exported. 


INTERNAL  COMMUNICATIONS 

The  roads  of  Colombia  are  very  bad  in  spite  of 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  improve 
them,  and  the  River  Magdalena  is  still  the  best  high- 
way. Railways  have  existed  in  Colombia  since  1867, 
but  the  country  presents  formidable  engineering  diffi- 
culties, owing  to  the  ranges  of  mountains  which  break 
it  up  into  sections  ;  and  there  is  little  system  in  the 
lines,  which  run  largely  at  cross  purposes  and  have 
varying  gauges.  That  of  the  Barranquilla  and  Santa 
Marta  Railway  is  3  feet  6  inches,  the  Girardot  Railways 
3  feet,  and  several  are  metre  gauge.  There  are  now 
621  miles  of  railway.  The  bulk  of  the  companies  are 


192       A    GUIDE    TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

under  British  control,  but  a  fair  proportion  belong  to 
the  Government  or  to  Colombian  companies.  There 
are  three  groups  :  *  the  Barranquilla  (the  oldest),  the 
Cartagena,  and  the  Santa  Marta,  which  lead  from  the 
three  chief  ports  so  named  and  have  a  united  length 
of  over  130  miles  ;  the  three  lines  connecting  Bogota 
with  the  Sabana  or  tableland  of  Bogota,  known  as  the 
Sabana,  the  Northern,  and  the  Southern  Railways,  with 
a  united  length  of  about  80  miles ;  and  lastly  the  lines 
which  serve  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  namely,  the 
Girardot,  the  Dorada,  and  the  Antioquia  Railways,  with 
a  mileage  of  about  310.  There  are  also  two  isolated 
railways — the  Cauca,  which  is  planned  to  connect 
Bogota  and  the  Pacific  port  Buenaventura  by  the  rich 
Cauca  Valley,  but  is  unfinished  as  to  five-sixths  of  its 
designed  course  ;  and  the  Cucuta  Railway,  which 
connects  the  town  of  that  name  with  Puerto  Villamizar 
on  the  River  Zulia,  near  the  Venezuelan  frontier. 
Some  account  will  be  given  of  the  railways  under  the 
headings  of  the  towns. 

FINANCES 

The  finances  of  Colombia  are  somewhat  confused, 
and  those  who  wish  to  study  them  are  referred  to  the 
various  reports  of  the  Incorporated  Society  of  Foreign 
Bondholders.  This  confusion  is  largely  due  to  the 
reckless  emission  of  paper  money,  which  has  made  the 
Colombian  currency  the  worst,  or  nearly  the  worst,  in 
Latin  America.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  gold  peso  of 
45.,  but  gold  or  silver  coins  are  rarely  seen,  and  the 
peso  has  sunk  almost  to  the  vanishing-point.  This 
was  not  always  the  case.  In  1897  ^ne  Paper  peso  was 

1  Much  of  this  information  is  taken  from  a  valuable  Report  for 
1910,  by  Mr.  V.  Huckin,  Acting  British  Consul-General  at 
Bogota. 


COLOMBIA  193 

worth  is.  8£d.,  but  the  revolutionary  troubles  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  culminating  in  the  loss  of 
Panama,  brought  about  alarming  depreciation.  Coins 
disappeared,  and  the  paper  money  brought  back  the 
memory  of  the  assignats  in  the  worst  days  of  the 
French  Revolution.  By  an  important  law  of  1905 
this  undesirable  state  of  things  was,  to  a  certain 
extent,  stereotyped,  for  the  rate  of  exchange  was  fixed 
at  10,000,  i.e.  100  gold  (43.)  dollars  were  to  be  rated  at 
10,000  paper  pesos,  and  now  the  paper  peso  fluctuates 
round  the  10,000  point,  or,  in  other  words,  is  worth 
sometimes  more,  sometimes  less,  than  a  halfpenny. 
The  same  law  made  provision  for  the  redemption  of 
the  paper  money  and  the  re-establishment  of  a 
metallic  currency,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  for  the  sake 
of  Colombia  and  all  who  are  interested  in  the 
country,  that  these  provisions  will  be  carried  out.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  traveller  should  invest 
sparingly  in  the  paper  money,  buying  only  the  bare 
amount  required  for  his  needs,  for  he  will  find  a 
difficulty  in  getting  rid  of  his  surplus  stock  when  he 
quits  the  country.  For  1913  the  budget  was  thus 
estimated  :  Revenue,  15,641,303  gold  pesos,  and  expen- 
diture 15,620,568.  Three-quarters  of  the  revenue 
came  from  the  customs  ;  war  and  the  service  of  the 
debt  were  the  principal  items  of  expenditure.  The 
external  debt  amounts  to  nearly  i\  millions  sterling. 

CONSTITUTION 

The  constitution  of  Colombia  changes  so  frequently 
that  a  detailed  description  of  it  would  be  superfluous. 

HISTORY 

Owing  to  the  abundance  of  gold,  the  sure  magnet 
for    fierce     adventurers,    the     land    now    known    as 


194       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Colombia  has  experienced  a  history  more  troubled 
than  is  usual  even  in  South  America.  It  was  visited 
by  Columbus  in  1498,  but  Bastida,  who  had  himself 
cruised  along  the  coast  two  years  earlier,  was  the  first 
to  make  a  permanent  settlement,  founding  Santa 
Marta  in  1525  on  the  north  coast.  A  few  years  later, 
Pedro  de  Heredia  explored  the  valley  of  the  Cauca 
and  won  an  immense  amount  of  gold.  But  the  real 
founder  of  Colombia,  which  he  called  New  Granada, 
was  Quesada,  who,  leaving  Santa  Marta,  made  his 
way  up  the  River  Magdalena,  and  reached  Bogota  in 
1537.  The  next  year  there  arrived  simultaneously  the 
German  adventurer  Fredemann  from  Venezuela,  and 
Belalcazar,  Pizarro's  lieutenant,  from  Quito,  but  the 
tact  of  Quesada  averted  a  collision,  and  their  joint 
forces  devoted  themselves  to  the  task  of  subduing  the 
Indians,  who  were  conquered  with  more  than  the  usual 
brutality.  Under  the  Spaniards  New  Granada  was  im- 
portant as  a  main  source  of  gold  supply,  and  its  large 
trade  (hampered,  however,  by  short-sighted  regulations), 
passing  through  the  excellent  harbour  of  Cartagena. 
Independence  was  won  in  the  great  revolutionary  war 
with  the  Spaniards  (1810-19),  and  with  the  help  of 
Bolivar  there  was  formed  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
out  of  Panama,  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  and  the  present 
Colombia.  Troubles  quickly  arose,  and  in  1831 
Colombia  (with  Panama)  seceded  and  called  itself  the 
United  States  of  New  Granada,  under  a  federal  con- 
stitution. It  would  serve  no  purpose  to  relate  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  next  half-century,  but  a  landmark 
may  be  named  in  1886,  when  General  Rafael  Reyes 
abolished  the  federal  system,  making  the  States  simple 
departments  and  proclaiming  the  Republic  of 
Colombia.  Changes  in  names  and  constitutions,  how- 
ever, brought  no  tranquillity,  for  civil  war  remained 
practically  chronic  ;  and  among  many  other  dis- 


COLOMBIA  195 

turbances,  the  Department  of  Panama  was,  in  1901,  in 
a  condition  of  such  disorder  that  the  United  States, 
England,  and  France  were  obliged  to  land  troops  at 
Colon  to  preserve  the  peace. 

This  episode  leads  to  the  circumstance  which  has 
made  Colombia  important  in  recent  history.  The 
United  States  had  decided  to  make  the  Panama  Canal, 
and  therefore  found  it  necessary  to  insist  upon  perfect 
order  in  the  Isthmus,  and  also  to  enter  into  delicate 
negotiations  with  Colombia  as  the  sovereign  State 
which  had  originally  given  the  concession  to  M.  de 
Lesseps's  company.  In  1903  the  Hay-Herran  treaty 
was  negotiated  at  Washington,  by  which  Colombia 
agreed  to  transfer  the  concession  to  the  United  States 
and  cede  to  them  a  strip  of  land  10  miles  wide  for  the 
purpose  of  the  Canal.  In  return  she  was  to  receive 
.£2,000,000  in  cash,  and,  after  ten  years,  an  annual 
rental  of  ^50,000  as  well  as  certain  benefits  in  respect 
of  50,000  snares  which  she  held  in  the  old  company. 
But  in  September,  1903,  the  Colombian  Senate  refused 
to  ratify  the  treaty  on  the  ground  that  when  it  was 
signed  the  Republic  was  in  a  state  of  civil  war  and  the 
plenipotentiary  had  no  authority.  The  Department  of 
Panama,  which  was  expecting  great  benefits  from  the 
Canal,  was  very  indignant,  and,  breaking  out  into 
revolt,  declared  itself  independent  on  November  3rd. 
In  spite  of  the  protests  of  Colombia,  the  United  States 
hastily  recognized  the  independence  of  the  new 
Republic  of  Panama,  and  negotiated  with  it  the  same 
treaty  that  Colombia  had  rejected.  Colombia  was 
thus  left  in  the  lurch,  losing  not  only  money  of  which 
she  was  in  sore  need,  but  a  valuable  piece  of  territory 
as  well.  It  was  not  till  January,  1910,  that  Colombia 
consented  to  recognize  the  independence  of  Panama 
in  consideration  of  a  sum  of  ^500,000  as  payment  of 
Panama's  share  in  the  public  debt  of  Colombia.  This 


196       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

aggression  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  has  left  an 
indelible  impression  upon  the  Colombian  people,  and 
in  1912  the  Government  refused  a  proposed  visit  from 
Mr.  Knox,  the  American  Minister,  who  was  touring  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea.1 

In  1905  General  Rafael  Reyes  was  elected  President 
for  a  special  term  of  ten  years,  and  succeeded  in  main- 
taining tolerable  order  and  developing  the  resources  of 
the  country.  But  in  1909  he  retired  to  Europe  on  the 
ground  of  ill-health,  and  the  next  year  Senor  Carlos 
Restropo  was  elected  for  the  ordinary  constitutional 
term  of  four  years,  without  serious  disorder.  Although 
the  currency  is  in  a  state'of  deplorable  confusion  and 
the  finances  not  altogether  satisfactory,  Colombia  has 
made  considerable  progress  since  the  disasters  of  1903, 
and  her  prospects  are  brighter  than  ever  before  in  her 
history. 

BARRANQUILLA,    SAVANILLA,    AND    PUERTO 
COLOMBIA 

To  speak  of  the  port  of  Barranquilla  or  Savanilla  is 
now  a  misnomer,  for  a  bar  across  the  River  Magdalena 
prevents  ships  coming  to  Barranquilla,  and  Savanilla, 
its  former  port,  has  been  abandoned  in  favour  of 
Puerto  Colombia,  a  few  miles  west.  Barranquilla  and 
Puerto  Colombia  are  17  miles  apart.  Barranquilla, 
however,  is  still  called  the  port,  although  dependent 
on  Puerto  Colombia  for  its  ocean  traffic. 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  has 
a  fortnightly  service  for  Puerto  Colombia  to  and  from  Liver- 
pool. The  home  journey  is  made  by  Colon  and  Jamaica. 
The  same  line  has  a  fortnightly  service  to  New  York.  The 
Leyland  Line  from  Liverpool  calls  about  twice  a  month. 
There  are  frequent  sailings  of  the  Hamburg-American  Line 


1  Since  the  above  was  written  the  United  States  have  made 
offers  of  compensation. 


COLOMBIA  197 

to  New  York  and  also  to  the  ports  of  Central  America. 
There  are  also  the  Cie.  Gen.  Transatlantique  to  France,  La 
Veloce  to  Genoa,  and  a  line  to  Barcelona.  The  R.M.S.P. 
Company's  fare  is  £30— return  £45.  The  fare  to  New  York 
by  the  best  lines  is  £16  133.  4d. — return  ^31  135.  4d.  The 
journey  from  Puerto  Colombia  to  Cartagena  by  sea  takes 
5  or  6  hours. 

RAILWAYS — From  Puerto  Colombia  to  Barranquilla  there  are 
three  trains  a  day  by  the  Barranquilla  Railway  and  Pier 
Company.  The  journey  occupies  an  hour.  Steamers  from 
Barranquilla  to  Calamar  give  connexion  with  the  railway 
from  Calamar  to  Cartagena. 

HOTELS— There  are  two  unpretending  hotels  at  Puerto  Colombia. 
At  Barranquiila  there  are  several.  "  There  are  many  worse 
places  to  sleep  in  than  a  third-floor  room  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Pension  Ingles  "  (Petre).  The  charge  is  125.  6d.  a  day. 
There  is  also  the  Central  Hotel. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  John  Gillies. 

BANKS — Banco  de  Bogota,  Banco  Central,  Banco  de  Colombia, 
Banco  de  Credito. 

NEWSPAPERS — Inconsiderable. 

Puerto  Colombia  is  a  very  small  place,  only  noted 
for  the  great  iron  pier,  4,000  feet  long,  which  was 
built  in  1893  at  a  cost  of  -£60,000.  Barranquilla 
(with  Puerto  Colombia)  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
country,  having  a  total  trade  of  considerably  over 
2j  millions  sterling.  The  population  is  nearly  50,000. 
Barranquilla  is  an  entirely  modern  town,  and  though 
of  great  commercial  importance  owing  to  its  ocean 
and  river  trade,  has  no  other  features  of  interest 
except  a  cathedral.  It  is  the  starting-point  for 
Bogota,  the  capital. 

The  ocean  steamer,  after  leaving  Puerto  Colombia, 
soon  arrives  at  Cartagena. 

CARTAGENA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— As  at  Puerto  Colombia. 

RAILWAYS — The  Cartagena  Railway  Company  has  a  line  of  62 
miles  to  Calamar. 


198       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

HOTELS— Walter's,  Calle  de  San  Agustin  (IDS.  a  day) ;  Mariani's, 

Calle  del  Cuartel  (zos.  a  day). 
BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  William  Dickin. 
BANK— Martinez  &  Co. 
N  EWSPAPERS— Inconsiderable. 

This  ancient  seaport,  with  memories  of  Drake,  the 
Inquisition,  and  Admiral  Vernon,  presents  a  beautiful 
appearance  from  the  sea,  and  is  an  extremely  pic- 
turesque town.  The  great  Spanish  fortifications,  built 
by  order  of  Philip  II,  are  still  intact.  The  harbour 
is  the  best  in  Colombia,  and  the  port,  which  declined 
after  the  fall  of  the  Spanish  power,  is  now  reviving. 
It  has,  on  the  average,  about  half  the  trade  of  Barran- 
quilla,  but  may  rival  it  in  the  near  future.  Like  all 
Colombian  coast  towns,  Cartagena  is  hot. 

Santa  Marta,  founded  by  Bastida  in  1525,  is  the 
oldest  settlement  in  Colombia,  but  its  importance  is 
of  recent  date  and  due  to  the  operations  of  the  United 
Fruit  Company,  which  exports  bananas  in  great  quanti- 
ties ;  Santa  Marta,  indeed,  has  a  larger  export  trade 
than  any  Colombian  port  except  Barranquilla  and 
Cartagena.  The  banana  district  is  served  by  a  railway 
58  miles  long.  The  Fyffes'  Line  has  a  regular  service 
to  England,  ships  of  the  United  Fruit  Company  sail 
frequently  to  New  York,  and  Santa  Marta  is  a  port 
of  call  for  the  Hamburg-American  Line. 

BOGOTA 

COMMUNICATIONS— Calamar,  which  is  the  first  stage,  can  be 
reached  either  by  Cartagena  or  Puerto  Colombia.  The 
journey  up  the  Magdalena  to  La  Dorada,  a  distance  of 
600  miles,  occupies  about  10  days.  The  steamboats  of  the 
Colombian  Navigation  Company  are  generally  preferred, 
but  if  the  river  is  low  it  is  better  to  go  by  a  smaller  line,  as 
a  large  boat  is  liable  to  go  aground.  Mosquito  nets  are 
necessary,  and  it  is  well  to  take  a  small  store  of  delicacies 


COLOMBIA  199 

to  eke  out  the  regulation  food.  In  fact,  in  Colombia  the 
traveller  needs  more  kit  than  in  other  South  American 
countries.  From  Dorada  there  is  a  short  railway  journey 
to  Honda.  Here  the  Hotel  America  offers  fair  accommoda- 
tion. From  Dorada  it  is  pleasanter  to  take  the  road,  and  a 
mule-ride  of  3  days  will  bring  the  traveller  to  Bogota. 
The  inns  on  this  road  are  very  fair. 

Otherwise  the  steamer  may  be  resumed  from  Honda  to 
Girardot — a  distance  of  93  miles — and  from  the  latter  place 
there  is  a  railway  of  82  miles  to  the  Sabana  of  Bogota.  This 
brings  the  traveller  to  Facativa,  which  is  still  25  miles  from 
the  capital,  but  the  Sabana  Railway  accomplishes  the 
journey,  and  thus  the  distant  goal  is  at  last  reached.  The 
total  fare  from  Cartagena  to  Bogota  by  this  last  route  is 
£9,  to  which  should  be  added  about  £i  53.  extra  for  a 
cabin  on  the  steamers — a  necessary  item. 

HOTELS — The  best  is  the  Hotel  Freese  in  the  Plaza  Bolivar,  the 
next  the  Hotel  Metropolitan©.  Both  are  unpretending.  Two 
others  are  the  Hotel  de  Europe  and  the  Hotel  Blume,  the 
last  being  suitable  for  ladies. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Mr.  P.  C.  H.  Wyndham  is  Minister  Resident 
and  Consul-General ;  M.  Badian  is  Vice-Consul. 

BANKS — Banco  de  Bogota,  Banco  de  Colombia,  Banco  Central. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Nuevo  Tiempo,  El  Liberal,  La  Cronica,  El 
Diario,  La  Gaceta  Republicana.  Excellent  reviews  are  El 
Semanario  and  El  Revista  National  Colombiana. 


Bogota,  the  capital  of  Colombia,  with  a  population 
of  120,000,  was  founded  by  Quesada  in  1538,  and 
from  the  first  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Spanish 
power.  Here  in  1810  the  Junta  declared  New  Granada 
independent ;  the  capital  was  seized  in  1815  by  the 
Royalist  General,  Pablo  Morillo,  who  held  it  for  four 
years,  till  he  was  driven  out  after  the  battle  of  Boyaca 
in  1819.  The  city  stands  at  an  elevation  of  8,563  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and,  like  many  Spanish-American 
capitals,  is  extremely  remote  in  situation.  As  has  been 
seen,  it  depends  for  its  intercourse  with  the  outer  world 
chiefly  upon  the  River  Magdalena,  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  is  distant  about  60  miles  as  the  crow  flies. 


200       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

It  is  the  terminus  of  three  short  lines  of  railway.  The 
Sabana  Railway  has  already  been  mentioned.  The 
Northern  Railway  runs  to  Zipaquira,  famous  for  salt- 
mines, at  a  distance  of  38  miles.  The  town  (population 
12,000)  has  a  good  hotel.  The  Southern  Railway, 
about  20  miles  in  length,  goes  to  Sibate. 

The  town  is  laid  out  on  the  usual  Spanish-American 
plan,  and  the  best  square  is  the  Plaza  Bolivar,  with  a 
statue  of  the  Liberator.  Here  is  the  National  Capitol,  a 
building  which  has  unfortunately  been  left  unfinished  : 
and  on  the  east  side  is  the  Cathedral,  begun  in  1572, 
but  not  completed  till  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  There  are  29  churches  in  Bogota,  of 
which  Ejipto,  Las  Nieves,  and  Santa  Barbara  belong 
to  the  sixteenth  century.  Not  far  from  the  Plaza  is 
the  Presidential  Palace,  an  unpretending  but  well- 
planned  building.  Bogota  has  a  large  and  very  good 
market,  which  is  well  supplied  with  a  great  variety  of 
fruit.  The  town  is  ill-paved  and  the  trams  are  indif- 
ferent. The  Theatre,  a  handsome  building,  was  erected 
as  early  as  1793.  The  National  University  was  founded 
in  1867,  but  the  College  of  Nuestra  Senora  del  Rosario 
dates  from  1654.  Bogota  is  distinguished  for  its  culti- 
vation of  the  humanities.  A  French  observer  says  : 
"  The  best  society  of  Bogota  cultivates  literature,  art 
and  science.  Its  high  standard  of  intellectual  culture 
enables  it  to  engage  in  the  pursuit  with  ease  and 
success.  One  might  say  that  all  branches  of  human 
knowledge  are  studied  and  cultivated.  Besides  their 
devotion  to  poetry,  many  gentlemen  and  ladies  of 
Bogota  have  excellent  taste  for  painting  and  music,  and 
thus  there  is  at  Bogota  a  literary  and  artistic  movement 
which  exercises  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  intel- 
lectual development  of  the  whole  country."  Colombia 
ranks  higher  in  poetry  than  any  other  Latin  American 
nation.  Everywhere  it  is  held  in  high  estimation,  but 


COLOMBIA  201 

nowhere  more  so  than  in  this  country,  where  soldiers 
and  statesmen  are  expected,  as  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth, 
to  be  able  to  turn  verses  as  well  as  to  be  skilled  in 
the  politics  of  war  and  peace.  Many  of  the  earlier 
poets  found  their  inspiration  in  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence, but  the  favourite  strain  is  erotic,  and  this  usually 
proves  wearisome  to  European  taste.  But  Diego 
Fallen  (1834-1905)  is  described  as  a  philosophical 
descriptive  poet ;  his  output  is  very  small,  but  the 
two  short  pieces  La  Luna  and  La  Palma  are  among 
the  gems  of  modern  poetry.  Rafael  Pombo  (1833- 
1912)  is  a  typical  Colombian  poet.  Jorge  Isaacs 
(born  1837)  wrote  Maria,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
South  American  novels,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to 
name  a  Spanish  American  town  where  the  humanities 
are  more  zealously  and  successfully  cultivated  than  at 
Bogota. 

Most  travellers  will  return  from  Bogota  to  the  coast 
by  the  way  they  came,  but  a  more  interesting  experi- 
ence would  be  to  make  a  round  trip,  taking  the  railway 
to  Girardot,  and  then  marching  over  the  Quindio  Pass 
to  Buenaventura,  the  chief  Colombian  seaport  on  the 
Pacific.  The  journey,  after  leaving  the  railway,  is  not 
much  less  than  200  miles,  but  the  route  is  extremely 
beautiful. 

Three  very  excellent  books  have  been  published  on  Colombia, 
namely  : — 

F.  L.  Petre.     The  Republic  of  Colombia.    London,  1906. 

Henry  Jalhay.    La  Republique  de  Colombie.     Brussels,  1909. 

P.  J.  Eder.     Colombia.     London,  1913.     South  American  Series. 

There  is  some  very  useful  information  in  a  paper  by 
R.  B.  White  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
for  May,  1883,  and  Mr.  Hiram  Bingham's  Journal  of  ah  Expedi- 
tion across  Colombia  and  Venezuela,1  is  interesting. 

1  New  Haven,  Connecticut — also  London — 1909. 


ECUADOR 

ECUADOR  is  a  country  which  has  always  been 
more  interesting  to  geographers  than  to  any 
other  class.  From  the  French  savants  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  were  commissioned  to 
measure  an  arc  of  the  meridian  on  ground  then 
supposed  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world,  to  the 
intrepid  men  of  our  own  day  who  have  climbed  Chim- 
borazo  and  Cotopaxi,  it  has  always  been  the  delight 
of  the  explorer.  On  account  of  these  very  geogra- 
phical difficulties  it  is  backward  both  politically  and 
industrially,  and  its  chief  commercial  significance  is 
as  the  main  source  of  the  supply  of  cocoa,  which  grows 
in  Los  Rios  and  other  provinces  near  the  sea.  Roads, 
except  mule-tracks,  are  almost  unknown,  and  railways 
are  very  scarce ;  hence  the  trader  and  tourist  do  not 
frequent  Ecuador.  The  soil  is  so  luxuriant  that  the 
inhabitants  can  easily  supply  their  wants,  and  thus 
become  indolent.  "At  a  very  trifling  expense,"  says 
Mr.  Whymper,  "  they  can  breakfast  on  chocolate,  dine 
on  bananas  and  coconut,  and  fall  back  at  night  on 
pine-apples." 

The  chief  geographical  feature  consists  in  the  vast 
and  volcanic  Andes — the  western  dominated  by  Chim- 
borazo  (20,498  feet),  and  the  eastern  by  the  fiery 
Cotopaxi,  with  a  pipe  over  100  feet  in  diameter,  at  the 
bottom  of  its  crater,  communicating  with  the  lower 

regions.     "At  intervals  of    about   half    an    hour    the 

203 


204       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

volcano  regularly  blew  off  steam.  It  rose  in  jets  with 
great  violence  from  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  and  boiled 
over  the  lip,  continually  enveloping  us.  The  noise  on 
these  occasions  resembled  that  which  we  hear  when  a 
large  ocean  steamer  is  blowing  off  steam"  (Whymper). 
These  mountains  make  communications  difficult,  and 
earthquakes  give  a  constant  sense  of  insecurity.  The 
coast  zone  is  extremely  hot,  and  in  the  south,  dry  ;  then 
comes  a  region  of  great  fertility,  where  cocoa,  cotton 
and  sugar  are  grown,  and  considerable  tracts  of  forest 
are  interspersed.  Higher  up  come  plateaux,  where 
wheat  is  cultivated  and  most  of  the  towns  (which 
are  never  large)  are  situated.  On  the  other  or  eastern 
side  of  the  watershed  are  dense,  impenetrable  forests, 
watered  by  the  great  rivers,  the  Napo  and  Putumayo, 
and  sparsely  inhabited  by  savage  Indians.  This  region 
is  the  huge,  ill-defined  Province  of  Oriente,  which  has 
hitherto  been  fruitful  in  little  but  boundary  disputes 
with  Peru,  Brazil  and  Colombia.  A  word  will  here- 
after be  said  of  these  disputes,  which  disturb  the  peace 
of  South  America  and  arrest  its  progress  ;  here  it  may 
be  noted  that  they  disturb  our  statistics,  for  Ecuador 
has  "claims"  which  would  possibly  double  her  esti- 
mated size  if  they  were  decided  in  her  favour  and 
accepted  by  her  neighbours.  Again,  a  census  is  not 
popular  with  the  inhabitants,  who  associate  it  with 
revenue  exactions,  and  the  latest  trustworthy  enumera- 
tion was  made  in  1898.  The  area  may  be  provisionally 
stated  at  156,305  square  miles,  of  which  the  indefinite 
Oriente  claims  100,000.  There  are  sixteen  Provinces 
and  one  Territory  (the  Galapagos  Islands),  and  their 
united  population  (including  uncivilized  Indians)  is 
probably  1,400,000.  Pinchincha,  in  which  Quito 
stands,  is  the  most  populous  Province. 

The  following  are  the  chief  heights  in  the  western 
mountain  chain  : — 


ECUADOR  205 

Feet 

Chimborazo      ...         20,498 

Illiniza 17*405 

Carihuairazo     I6,5i5 

Cotocachi          16,301 

In  the  eastern  chain  the  principal  peaks  are  : — 

Feet 

Cotopaxi  19,613 

Cayambe  19,186 

Antisana  ...  19,335 

Altar       ...  ...                     ...  17,730 

Only  two  rivers  of  any  importance  flow  into  the 
Pacific ;  they  are  the  Guayas,  a  most  useful  river, 
to  which  Ecuador  owes  practically  all  its  foreign 
commerce,  and  the  Esmeralda  in  the  north.  The 
great  rivers  are  affluents  of  the  Amazon  or  its  tribu- 
taries. The  second  largest  is  the  Napo.  "  The  noble 
river,  even  when  not  swollen,  is  broader  than  the 
Thames  at  London  Bridge,  although  it  takes  three 
weeks  down-stream  to  reach  its  mouth  in  the 
Maranon ;  and  the  distance  from  Agauno  to  the 
sea  is  about  3,000  miles."  * 

The  Putumayo,  a  still  greater  stream,  rises  in 
Colombia,  and  much  of  the  Ecuadorian  territory 
through  which  it  flows  is  disputed  and  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  atrocities  thus  conveniently  shifted 
upon  Peru.  The  Indians  in  that  neighbourhood, 
according  to  Mr.  Simson,  who  wrote  before  the 
civilizing  influence  of  Latin  America  reached  the 
Putumayo,  were  good-tempered  and  splendid  workers 
when  kindly  treated.  The  lakes  of  Ecuador  are  quite 
unimportant. 

The  geological  system  of  the  eastern  Cordillera  is 
ancient,  consisting  of  gneiss,  mica  and  schist.  The 

1  Simson.     Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador,  p.  126. 


206       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

western  Cordillera  consists  chiefly  of  volcanic  por- 
phyritic  rock,  belonging  to  the  Mesozoic  period.  The 
sea-belt  consists  mainly  of  Tertiary  and  Quaternary 
beds.  The  lowlands  of  Ecuador  are  covered 
with  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  and  practically 
all  tropical  products  can  be  grown.  These  include 
cocoa,  coffee,  tobacco  and  all  kinds  of  fruit.  At 
moderately  high  elevations  barley,  maize,  beans  and 
lucerne  are  cultivated,  and  higher  still  there  is  abun- 
dance of  grass.  By  far  the  most  important  vegetable 
product  of  Ecuador  is  the  cocoa  plant  (Theobroma 
cacao),  which  is  chiefly  cultivated  on  the  moist,  hot 
lowlands,  while  the  vegetable  ivory  and  the  toquilla 
straw  for  making  hats,  obtained  from  the  Carludovica 
palmata,  are  valuable  commercial  products.  The 
red-wood  (Humiria  balsamiferd)  and  the  polo  de  cruz 
(Jacquinea  ruscifolia),  and  other  forest  trees  yield 
good  timber.  The  fauna  of  Ecuador  resembles  that 
of  the  neighbouring  countries.  It  includes,  as  usual, 
the  puma,  jaguar,  bear  (Ursus  ornatus),  fox  and 
weasel.  Tapirs,  peccaries  and  opossums  are  very 
common,  while  the  larger  animals  are  represented 
by  alpacas,  guanacos,  and  vicunas,  with  a  few  kinds 
of  deer.  Snakes  are  numerous  from  anacondas  down- 
wards, and  the  bird  life  of  Ecuador  is  extremely 
varied.  Insects  are  even  more  numerous,  and,  in 
particular,  the  varieties  of  beetles  are  endless.  The 
uncleanly  habits  of  the  people  are  very  favourable  to 
the  multiplication  of  specimens  of  vermin,  which  may 
be  found  in  great  variety  at  many  of  the  hotels,  and 
apart  from  this  travel  in  Ecuador  is  rendered  dis- 
agreeable by  the  denizens  of  the  forest,  among  which 
the  vampire  is  formidable,  and  quite  justifies  the  evil 
reputation  given  him  by  the  poets.  Much  valuable 
information  upon  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Ecuador  is 
given  in  Mr.  Whymper's  book. 


ECUADOR  207 

PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRY 

In  1911  the  imports  amounted  to  £1,647,660 
exports  „  £2,806,236 

The  chief  sharers  in  the  import  trade  are  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  United  States,  Germany  and 
France.  Although  Great  Britain  has  long  held  first 
place,  her  imports  are  dwindling,  while  those  of  the 
United  States  are  increasing.  Germany,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  not  make  much  progress.  Great  Britain's 
share  in  the  export  trade  is  comparatively  small, 
and  is  exceeded  by  France,  the  United  States  and 
Germany.  Textiles  are  the  principal  imports,  but 
the  list  is  varied,  as  Ecuador  has  practically  no 
manufactures. 

The  following  are  the  principal  exports  : — 

Sucres  x 

Cocoa 16,486,206 

Panama  hats 2,889,919 

Coffee 2,303,618 

Ivory  nuts         1,787,992 

Rubber 1,404,438 

Cocoa  is  by  far  the  chief  industry  of  the  Republic. 
The  plant  grows  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Guayas, 
and  Ecuador  contributes  about  one-third  of  the 
world's  supply.  The  hat  industry  is  the  most  interest- 
ing in  the  country.  The  hats  are  made  from  the  pliant 
leaves  of  the  toquilla  (Carludovica  palmata),  and  the 
hats  ought  to  be  called  Ecuadorian,  for  here  all  the 
best  are  made.  Peru  and  Colombia  also  manufacture 
them,  but  none  are  made  in  the  town  or  Department 
of  Panama,  which  gave  them  its  name  because  it  was 
the  place  of  purchase.  The  coast  Indians  carefully 
select  the  valuable  toquilla  straw,  which  they  divide 
into  the  right  widths  with  their  thumb-nails,  and 
1  The  sucre  is  worth  2S. 


2o8       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

plait  in  circular  form  from  the  apex  until  the  hat 
is  finished.  This  plaiting  is  done  in  the  small  hours 
of  the  morning  when  the  air  is  moist.  The  ivory- 
nut  industry  is  noticed  in  the  Colombian  section. 
A  fair  amount  of  coffee  is  grown.  The  wild  rubber- 
trees  are  becoming  exhausted,  and  attention  is  now 
being  given  to  planting.  Although  the  country  has 
great  mineral  wealth,  mining  has  not  hitherto  been 
very  profitable,  but  there  is  a  productive  gold-mine, 
worked  by  North  Americans,  at  Laruma,  in  the 
Province  of  Oro. 


COINAGE 

Although  the  money  of  Ecuador  is  minted  abroad, 
there  is  an  excellent  monetary  system.  The  gold 
condor  is  equal  to  the  English  sovereign,  and  it  is 
subdivided  into  ten  sucres,  or  two-shilling  pieces, 
which  form  the  unit  of  value.  The  general  circula- 
tion is  in  bank-notes  of  local  issue,  all  of  which 
are  changeable  at  par  for  gold.  The  quintal  of 
10 1  Ib.  is  the  favourite  weight,  although  the  French 
metric  system  has  been  assumed  (by  law)  to  be  in 
force  since  1856. 

Except  for  the  Guayaquil-Quito  Railway  (to  be 
hereafter  mentioned)  there  are  no  railways  in  being, 
except  the  short  one  from  Puerto  Bolivar,  which 
serves  an  important  cocoa  district.  Several,  how- 
ever, are  projected.  The  finances  of  the  Republic 
are  in  some  confusion,  and  it  is  not  very  easy  to 
get  information  about  them.  In  1912  the  revenue 
and  expenditure  were  each  returned  at  ^1,897,132. 
The  revenue  is  chiefly  raised  from  customs  duties. 
The  foreign  debt  is  £3>333>399  and  the  internal 
debt  .£1,180,180. 

The   latest  report   of  the    Incorporated  Society  of 


ECUADOR  209 

Foreign  Bondholders  commends  the  Republic  for  the 
efforts  it  is  making  to  satisfy  its  obligations  to  creditors. 

CONSTITUTION 

Ecuador  has  a  constitution  which  is  centralized  in 
type.  There  is  a  President,  who  holds  office  for  four 
years,  assisted  by  five  Ministers.  The  Congress  con- 
sists of  the  Senate  of  32  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
of  42  members,  and,  as  is  only  natural  in  a  backward 
and  almost  unexplored  country,  liberty,  toleration  and 
order  are  not  prominent  characteristics.  Foreigners, 
however,  are  not  molested. 

HISTORY 

Long  before  the*  advent  of  the  Spaniards  the  table- 
lands round  about  Quito  had  been  conquered  by  the 
Caras,  a  warlike  race,  whose  kings,  called  Shiri, 
reigned  in  Quito,  where  they  attained  a  fair  measure 
of  civilization.  But  not  long  before  the  Spanish  con- 
quest they  were  overthrown  by  the  Incas,  who  incor- 
porated their  territory  with  the  numerous  provinces  of 
the  Inca  Empire.  The  Spaniards  established  them- 
selves at  Quito  in  1533  under  the  leadership  of 
Benalcazar,  and  by  1550  systematic  rule  began.  It 
can  never  be  too  often  affirmed,  in  contradiction  of 
the  parrot-tale  of  Spanish  oppression  which  is  repeated 
by  so-called  historians,  that  the  Spanish  Government 
was  essaying  with  remarkable  success  a  task  which  has 
no  parallel  excepting  in  the  dominion  of«  ancient 
Rome,  and  that  their  system  was  a  marvel  of  wisdom. 
Their  Governors  were  builders  of  cities,  lawgivers, 
and  protectors  of  the  Indians,  and  even  in  the  mines, 
where  the  regulations  were  disregarded,  the  treatment 
of  the  Indians  compares  very  favourably  with  that  of 
the  rubber-gatherers  under  Republican  rule  in  the 


210       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

twentieth  century.  The  new  conquerors  introduced 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  indigo,  sugar-cane  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  banana,  and  while  bringing  prosperity  to 
their  subjects,  they  gave  them  also  the  inestimable 
value  of  peace.  "  Spain  in  America  inherited  and 
preserved  something  of  the  majesty  of  the  Roman 
Peace."  I  Equally  baseless  are  the  wild  statements 
that  intellectual  life  was  crushed  and  torpor  reigned 
under  the  Spaniards  ;  on  the  contrary,  culture  was 
introduced  and  universities  founded  by  them,  and  a 
great  part  of  their  good  work  perished  with  the  revolu- 
tion. The  Church,  which  is  specially  singled  out  for 
ignorant  vituperation,  was  the  pioneer  of  intellectual 
life  and  progress.  Writing  on  Ecuador,  the  editor  of 
the  Antologia  says  :  "  To  the  monastic  orders,  and 
especially  to  that  of  San  Francisco,  is  due  the  first 
culture  of  the  country  and  the  establishment  of  the 
first  schools."  In  1736  Ecuador  figured  in  the  history 
of  science,  being  visited  by  a  party  of  French  savants, 
who  came  to  measure  an  arc  of  the  earth's  meridian. 
The  history  of  the  Province  of  Quito  was  one  of 
uninterrupted  peace  and  prosperity  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  Accordingly,  in 
1809,  when  the  revolutionary  spirit  began  to  spread, 
the  efforts  of  the  turbulent  Creoles,  eager  to  gain 
political  power  for  themselves,  met  with  little  response 
from  a  contented  people,  and  Montes,  the  Spanish 
general,  ruled  the  Province  wisely  and  well  for  many 
years,  while  the  Spanish  cause  continued  to  prosper  in 
the  north  of  the  continent.  But  the  victories  of 
Bolivar  turned  the  tide,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
famous  Sucre,  the  Ecuadorians  won  their  indepen- 
dence by  the  battle  of  Pichincha,  near  Quito,  on 
May  24,  1822.  The  people  joined  the  Colombian 
Federation  (i.e.  Colombia,  Panama  and  Venezuela), 
1  Cambridge  Modern  History  x.  277. 


ECUADOR  211 

but  in  1830  they  broke  away  under  Flores,  and 
became  the  Republic  of  Ecuador.  Flores,  with  the 
help  of  his  army,  maintained  his  ground  till  1845,  when 
he  was  driven  into  exile.  The  rest  of  the  history  of 
the  country  is  a  tedious  record  of  tyrants,  revolution, 
and  bloodshed.  The  most  masterly  of  the  tyrants 
was  Moreno,  who  first  became  President  in  1861,  and 
after  a  stormy  career,  in  which  he  showed  himself, 
perhaps,  the  best  ruler  of  this  unfortunate  Republic,  he 
was  assassinated  by  the  Liberals  in  1875.  After  this 
political  conditions  grew  worse  than  ever,  and  to  this 
day  have  never  shown  the  slightest  indication  of  im- 
provement. In  the  later  years  of  the  century  Alfaro 
was  prominent,  and  in  1901  General  Plaza  was  elected 
President.  He  held  office  for  a  considerable  period, 
but  Alfaro  continued  to  possess  much  power.  In 
1911  General  Estrada  became  President,  but  he  died 
before  the  end  of  the  year  and  a  revolution  broke  out. 
It  was  headed  by  General  Alfaro  and  a  colleague.  The 
latter  surrendered  and  was  treacherously  shot  by  the 
mob  of  Guayaquil.  General  Alfaro  was  afterwards 
captured  and  imprisoned  in  Guayaquil.  The  blood- 
thirsty mob  broke  into  his  prison  and  murdered  him 
with  barbarities  the  like  of  which  have  not  been  seen 
for  many  centuries.  This  brutal  ferocity  shows  that 
the  people  of  Ecuador,  in  spite  of  a  few  exceptions, 
are  still  a  nation  of  savages,  and  it  is  a  great  pity  that 
they  ever  disengaged  themselves  from  the  beneficent 
control  of  Spain  and  have  had  the  opportunity  to  sully 
the  pages  of  history  with  incessant  and  wanton 
bloodshed.  In  1912  General  Plaza  was  elected 
President. 

Such  has  been  the  miserable  history  of  a  country 
which  possesses  many  natural  advantages  ;  under  firm 
and  good  government  it  could  hardly  have  failed  to 
become  a  highly  prosperous  community,  but,  in  fact, 


212       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

it  has  not  made  the  slightest  progress  in  a  century  ;  it 
has    actually    retrograded.      The    net    result    of   the 
troubled   history   of   Ecuador — i.e.  the   result   which 
to-day  has  most  interest  for  South  America  and  the 
civilized  world — is  the  great  boundary  dispute.     The 
main  fact  to  bear  in   mind  is  that  in  1830  and  long 
afterwards  both  Ecuador  and  Peru  were  in  a  state  of 
distraction   and   anarchy,   that  treaties   made  at  that 
time  were  often  the  work  of  factions,  and  have  not  the 
inviolable  character  which  European  nations  associate 
with  these  solemn  compacts,  but  that  Peru  began  to 
shake  off  her  anarchy  at  an  earlier  period,  and  even  in 
the  fifties,  sixties,  and  seventies  made  serious  attempts 
to  establish  communications  upon  the  affluents  of  the 
Amazon  and  to  develop  the  adjacent  country.     Con- 
sequently she  has  always  been  in  a  better  position  to 
establish  her  claims,  and  is  now  on  stronger  ground 
than    Ecuador  in  equity  if  not  in  law.     The  Ecua- 
dorians declare  that  a  treaty  was  made  between  Peru 
and  the  Colombian  Federation  in  1829,  and  ratified  at 
Lima  in  1830,  which  confined  Peru  to  the  south  of  the 
rivers  Macara  and  Maranon,  i.e.  took  from  Peru  the 
whole  territory  now  in  dispute.     But  they  admit  that, 
when  Ecuador  broke  away  from  Colombia  in  the  same 
year,  this  important  treaty  was  unaccountably  over- 
looked by  the  Ecuadorian  Government,  and  that  for 
many  years  the  bickerings  went  on  without  any  refer- 
ence  to   it.     The   fact  is   that   boundary  treaties  are 
useless  unless  accompanied  by  a  scientific  delimitation 
of  boundaries,  and  neither  party  was  then  competent 
to  carry  it  out.     There  is  no  doubt  that  in  1852  Peru 
handed  over  to   Brazil  a  huge  slice  of  the  disputed 
territory  lying  near  the  confluence  of  the  Yapura  and 
the  Amazon.     This  calm  assumption  of  proprietorship, 
coupled  with  the  establishment  of  Peruvian  settlements 
at  Iquitos  and  Loreto,  was  a  standing  source  of  annoy- 


ECUADOR  213 

ance  to  Ecuador,  and  in  1887  the  two  Republics 
agreed  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  the  King 
of  Spain.  Both  sides  complicated  the  matter  by 
reference  to  the  shadowy  claims  of  Colombia  (late 
New  Granada),  and  as  both  feared  an  adverse  decision 
there  were  constant  intrigues.  The  proceedings 
dragged  on  till  1909.  Then  Ecuador,  suspecting  that 
the  arbitration  would  be  unfavourable,  proposed  a 
direct  arrangement,  which  Peru  declined.  The 
boundary  line  proposed  by  the  King  of  Spain  was 
made  known;  the  Ecuadorians  were  highly  indignant 
at  its  unfavourable  character;  feelings  rose  to  a 
dangerous  height,  and  in  April,  1910,  the  Republics 
were  on  the  verge  of  war.  In  November  of  the  same 
year  the  King  of  Spain,  by  the  advice  of  his  Govern- 
ment, withdrew  from  the  arbitration,  whereupon  Peru 
offered  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  Hague  Tribunal,  but 
Ecuador  declined  the  invitation. 

Peru's  offer  (provided  that  a  competent  and  im- 
partial boundary  commission  were  established)  is  the 
best  solution.  On  the  one  hand,  Ecuador  cannot 
expect  to  take  territory  that  has  been  peacefully 
possessed  by  Peru  for  half  a  century;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  she  ought  to  be  allowed  to  retain  such  a 
slice  of  the  Province  of  Oriente  as  will  give  her  access 
to  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Napo,  if  not  of  the 
Putumayo.  This  is  reasonably  necessary  for  Ecuador, 
while  peace  and  good  relations  are  a  vital  necessity 
for  both  Republics. 

GUAYAQUIL 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company 
gives  a  good  service  north  and  south.  The  journey  to 
Panama  takes  3^  days  and  the  cost  of  a  first-class  ticket 
is  about  £13.  The  Kosmos  Line  (German),  which  touches 
at  the  chief  ports  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Magellan 
Straits,  also  puts  in  at  Guayaquil,  but  all  lines  are  apt  to 


2i4       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

leave  it  out  of  their  schedules,  as  it  is  liable  to  the  scourge 
of  yellow  fever.  The  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company 
connects  at  Colon  with  the  Panama  Railroad  Steamship 
Line  for  New  York,  to  which  the  first-class  fare  is  ^28  75. 
A  passage  from  Guayaquil  to  Southampton  by  the  combined 
Royal  Mail  and  Pacific  Steam,  including  railway  fare  from 
Panama  to  Colon,  is  ^41  los.  The  journey  from  Callao 
to  Guayaquil,  in  a  good  but  leisurely  steamer  stopping 
at  Peruvian  ports,  takes  about  5  days.  The  following 
extract  from  the  diary  of  a  traveller  who  approached  from 
Callao  explains  itself : — 

"May  nth— The  weather  is  warmer.  Early  in  the  morning 
we  saw  the  coast  of  Ecuador  and  passed  a  barren  island 
on  the  port  side.  We  were  soon  in  the  River  Guayas 
(Yambeli  Channel),  and  passed  the  island  of  Puna,  which, 
like  the  coast 'generally,  is  covered  with  trees,  and  the  river 
is  very  wide.  We  are  near  the  island  bank  and  can  scarcely 
see  the  mainland  to  the  east.  Yellow  fever  is  very  bad 
here  ;  there  is  a  German  barque  in  the  river  which  has  lost 
its  captain  and  half  its  crew.  When  we  came  close  up  to 
the  island  the  view  was  picturesque  ;  Puna  is  overgrown 
with  woods  and  must  be  full  of  mosquitoes,  but  the  sight 
of  green  is  pleasant  after  the  arid  coasts  of  Chile  and  Peru. 
We  finally  anchored  off  the  small  town  of  Puna  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island  and  not  far  from  the  ill-fated  barque. 
It  is  empty,  waiting  for  a  crew.  When  the  tide  served, 
we  resumed  our  voyage  up  the  river  at  about  5  o'clock,  but 
soon  after  sunset  we  anchored  again  and  restarted  towards 
midnight,  reaching  Guayaquil,  I  suppose,  before  dawn. 

"May  i2th — We  are  off  Guayaquil,  a  large  town  on  the 
right  bank.  The  doctor  came  on  board  early.  Ever  since 
we  entered  the  river  a  fumigator  has  been  going,  and  every 
precaution  is  taken  against  yellow  fever.  The  scenery  is 
good.  The  river  is  more  than  a  mile  broad  ;  the  water 
is  slow  and  slimy,  and  a  good  many  branches  and  rubbish 
float  down.  The  land  close  to  the  banks  is  tilled,  but  other- 
wise trees  cover  everything,  and  all  the  low  hills  round 
about  are  densely  covered.  Nothing  can  be  seen  of  the 
great  mountains.  We  are  taking  no  cargo  here,  and  it 
seems  that  this  is  only  a  formal  call,  for  the  Ecuadorian 
Government  has  threatened  to  withdraw  the  subsidy  unless 
more  fast  ships  come  to  Guayaquil.  About  a  dozen  passen- 
gers came  on  board— French,  American,  and  the  like.  I  was 


ECUADOR  215 

told  that  the  new  railway  barely  paid  expenses.  We  left 
for  Panama  at  about  5  o'clock,  and  had  a  fine  view  of  the 
river  as  we  went  down.  Here  and  there  the  woods  have 
been  cleared  and  there  are  small  estancias,  but  in  general 
there  is  nothing  but  forest.  Sometimes  we  were  within 
100  yards  or  so  of  the  bank,  and  saw  right  into  the  virgin 
forest.  We  stuck  in  the  mud  once.  The  weather  was  very 
hot  till  we  got  the  evening  breeze.  A  good  shower  fell." 

RAILWAYS — The  line  for  Quito,  325  miles  in  length,  starts  from 
Duran,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The  line 
passes  through  Latacunga  and  goes  up  the  mountains  to 
Quito.  Financially  the  line  has  hitherto  been  a  disappoint- 
ment, partly  owing  to  the  primitive  nature  of  the  industries 
and  partly  owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  arrangements  made 
for  paying  interest  on  the  railway  bonds.  However,  it 
remains  the  chief  public  asset  of  the  Republic.  There  are 
paddle  steamers  on  the  river. 

HOTELS — The  Paris,  the  Victoria,  the  Guayaquil.  The  charges 
are  from  125.  to  £i  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Consul,  A.  Cartwright ;  Vice-Consul,  G.  A. 
Powell. 

BANK — Commercial  Bank  of  South  America. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Grito  del  Pueblo,  El  Telegrapiro. 


Guayaquil,  with  a  population  of  80,000,  is  the 
largest  town  in  the  Republic  and  the  only  one  of  real 
commercial  importance.  It  was  founded  in  1535  by 
one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Pizarro,  and  soon  became 
a  place  of  importance,  but  it  suffered  much  from  the 
buccaneers.  It  was  attacked  in  1624  and  sacked  by 
the  French  in  1686,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
plundered  by  an  English  pirate.  William  Dampierre 
sacked  it  in  1707,  and  it  suffered  the  same  fate  in  1709. 
It  is  also  subject  to  devastating  fires,  which  from  time 
to  time  have  destroyed  great  parts  of  it.  These 
troubles,  and  the  backward  condition  of  the  country, 
kept  its  population  almost  stationary,  and  in  1736  its 
inhabitants  were  estimated  at  20,000,  while  about 
1860  they  were  said  to  number  not  more  than  24,000, 


216       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

and  the  population  was  said  to  be  decreasing.  How- 
ever, during  the  war  between  Chile  and  Peru  Guaya- 
quil benefited  at  the  expense  of  her  neighbours,  and 
has  rapidly  increased  and  is  becoming  tolerably 
prosperous.  Guayaquil  has  been  thus  enthusiastically 
described  by  an  Ecuadorian  poet : — 

"  Guayaquil,  cuidad  hermosa, 
De  la  America  guirnalda, 
De  tierra  bella  esmeralda, 
De  la  mar  perla  preciosa." 

It  certainly  has  a  picturesque  situation  among  green 
woods  on  a  fine  river,  but  can  hardly  inspire  enthu- 
siasm in  an  impartial  stranger,  for  the  old  town  is 
ill-built  and  very  dirty,  and  the  new  town  nothing 
remarkable.  A  greater  disadvantage  is  the  yellow 
fever,  which  visits  the  town  with  great  regularity. 
This  and  other  fevers  are  at  their  worst  during  the 
rainy  season  from  January  to  April,  while  during  the 
rest  of  the  year  the  climate  is  drier,  cooler,  and  more 
healthy.  The  death-rate  is  estimated  at  40-45  per 
thousand.  The  maximum  temperature  is  90-95°  Fahr., 
the  minimum  64-66°.  The  rainfall  is  from  75  to  90 
inches.  A  good  water  supply  has  been  introduced, 
and  steps  are  being  taken  to  improve  the  sanitation  ; 
there  is  no  reason  why  Guayaquil  should  not  be  as 
healthy  as  Panama.  The  principal  street  is  the 
Malecon,  but  there  are  few  fine  buildings.  The 
Cathedral,  planned  on  an  ambitious  scale,  is  con- 
structed of  bamboo,  and  most  of  the  buildings  are 
timber.  Apart  from  its  commerce,  Guayaquil  has 
very  few  features  of  interest.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
ports  of  the  Southern  Pacific.  In  1910  there  entered 
Guayaquil  213  vessels  of  396,262  tons,  nearly  half 
of  which  were  British.  Trade  here  is  said  to  be  very 
honourable,  with  few  bankruptcies. 


ECUADOR  217 

QUITO 

COMMUNICATIONS — The  Guayaquil-Quito  Railway  has  been 
already  mentioned  ;  the  line  is  metre  gauge  and  the  journey 
takes  48  hours  ;  the  trains  only  run  in  daylight. 

HOTELS — The  old  hotel  was  Giacometti's,  near  the  Cathedral. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul-General  and  Charge  d'Affaires,  J. 
Jerome. 

BANKS — None. 

NEWSPAPERS— El  Comercio,  La  Prensa. 

It  is  possible  that  the  railway  will  galvanize  into 
life  this  very  backward  city,  which  stands  at  an 
elevation  of  9,350  feet,  and,  although  the  capital, 
has  few  of  the  characteristics  which  civilized  nations 
associate  with  the  word.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  Quitu  race,  who  possessed  the  land  before  the 
advent  of  the  Caras.  Spanish  rule  was  established 
here  by  Benalcazar  in  1534.  Its  history  has  not  been 
eventful,  and  the  principal  events  in  its  annals  are 
earthquakes,  which  occur  with  terrific  violence.  The 
most  severe  were  in  1797  and  1859.  For  more  than 
a  generation  its  population  has  been  estimated  at 
60,000  to  80,000,  but  Whymper,  who  gives  a  plan 
of  Quito,  dated  1875,  declares  that  it  did  not  then, 
in  his  opinion,  exceed  30,000,  and  probably  there 
has  been  no  great  increase  since  his  visit.  The 
climate  is  pleasant  ;  the  temperature  seldom  reaches 
90°  Fahr.,  or  falls  below  65°. 

Unfortunately  the  habits  of  the  people  —  half- 
Christianized  pagans — are  very  dirty,  and  the  water 
supply  is  bad.  The  city  is  traversed  by  two  deep 
ravines  (quebradas),  and  is  built  on  very  uneven 
ground,  but  the  streets  are  laid  out  upon  a  very 
regular  plan.  In  the  centre  is  the  Plaza  Mayor, 
where  the  Government  Offices,  the  Episcopal  Palace, 
and  the  Cathedral  are  grouped.  A  great  part  of  the 
area  of  Quito  is  covered  with  fine  churches,  which 


218       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

contrast  strongly  with  the  mean,  ill-built  houses. 
Quito  has  a  University,  which  was  founded  in  1620 ; 
it  has  thirty-two  professors  and  five  faculties. 

Considerable  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Uni- 
versity for  the  promotion  of  science,  which,  it  may 
be  remarked,  are  invariably  ignored  by  North  American 
writers,  who  declaim  vaguely  about  ignorance  and 
priestcraft.  For  many  years  the  late  Professor 
William  Jameson  held  the  Chair  of  Botany  here,  and 
he  did  invaluable  work  in  classification  of  the  botany 
of  the  country. 

In  poetry,  Ecuador  may  claim  a  high  place.  Jose 
Joaquin  Olmedo  is  reckoned  one  of  the  three  or  four 
great  poets  of  South  America,  and  he  has  been  called 
the  American  Quintana.  He  was  one  of  the  poets  of 
the  Revolution  and  wrote  in  praise  of  Bolivar.  His 
strain  is  lofty  and  dignified,  far  above  the  usual 
manner  of  Latin  American  poets,  and  to  European 
readers  perhaps  not  the  least  of  his  merits  will  be 
considered  his  pure  diction  and  the  pursuit  of  classic 
models,  so  that  he  appears  to  be  rather  a  Spanish 
poet  than  one  of  the  Latin  Americans.  Later  in  the 
century  the  contemplative  poet,  D.  Julio  Zaldumbide, 
wrote  short  Nature  lyrics  with  success.  Montalvo, 
who  gave  his  attention  chiefly  to  politics,  was  an 
able  thinker,  and  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
Liberals  who  opposed  Moreno.  It  will  be  obvious 
from  this  brief  notice  of  the  intellectual  life  of  Ecuador 
that  the  country  has,  in  this  respect,  made  progress 
out  of  all  proportion  to  her  material  advance. 

Beyond  Guayaquil  and  Quito  there  are  few  places 
of  importance  in  the  Republic.  Manta  has  some 
shipping  trade,  but  it  is  insignificant  compared  with 
Guayaquil.  The  same  remark  applies  to  Esmeraldas, 
which  is  a  well-situated  port  to  the  north.  In 


ECUADOR  219 

December,  1913,  it  was  seized  by  the  revolutionaries, 
and  two  months  later  was  bombarded  and  burnt 
by  the  Government  forces.  Riobamba  is  a  quiet 
town,  subject  to  terrible  earthquakes  ;  in  1880  it  was 
described  by  Whymper  as  having  an  empty  and 
deserted  air,  but  its  population  has  since  that  date 
increased  considerably.  Cuenca,  with  30,000  inhabi- 
tants, is  the  third  largest  town  in  Ecuador,  and  is 
situated  in  a  rich  agricultural  district.  There  is  no 
reason  why  the  ordinary  traveller  should  do  more 
than  make  the  journey  to  Quito ;  few  enter  the 
country  at  all. 

THE  GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS 

In  view  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the 
Galapagos  Islands  (Indian  name  for  tortoises,  which 
used  to  swarm  upon  them,  but  have  been  much 
diminished  by  promiscuous  slaughter)  may  become 
important  as  a  coaling  station.  They  lie  on  the 
Equator,  and  consist  of  fifteen  large  islands,  and  about 
forty  small,  with  a  total  area  of  3,170  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  500.  The  largest  are  Albemarle 
(1,710  square  miles),  Indefatigable,  Narborough, 
Chatham,  James,  and  Charles.  Chatham  Island  is 
530  miles  from  the  nearest  point  in  Ecuador,  620 
miles  from  Guayaquil,  and  840  from  Panama. 
They  are  most  remarkable  geological  formations, 
volcanic  in  origin,  and  as  late  as  1907  there  was  a 
discharge  of  lava  from  James  Island.  Both  flora  and 
fauna  present  many  peculiar  and  indigenous  species. 
Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1535,  they  were  a 
great  place  of  resort  for  the  buccaneers,  to  whom 
they  owe  their  individual  names.  Always  an  object 
of  much  interest  to  geographers,  they  were  annexed 
and  occupied  by  the  Republic  of  Ecuador  in  1832, 


220       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

which  has  used  them  chiefly  as  penal  settlements, 
and  thus  arrested  their  development.  In  1892  she 
changed  their  name  to  the  Colon  group,  and  also 
renamed  each  island,  but  the  old  nomenclature  has 
prevailed  against  the  new. 

Darwin  visited  them  in  1835  and  described  them 
in  his  inimitable  manner. 

Literature  upon  Ecuador  is  scarce  and  not  up  to  date, 
with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Knock's  book ;  much  of  the  geo- 
graphical information  is  contained  in  German  and  Spanish 
works.  Whymper's  book  is  interesting.  The  following  may  be 
useful  to  the  traveller  : — 

Orton,  James.      The  Andes   and  the  Amazon,      yd  ed.      New 

York,  1876. 
Hassaurek,  F.    Four  Years  Among  Spanish  Americans.     3rd  ed. 

Cincinnati,  1881. 

Simson,  A.     Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador.     London,  1887. 
Whymper,  E.     Travels  Amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator. 

London,  1892. 
Rice,   A.    H.     From  Quito    to    the   Amazon   via  the  River  Napo. 

Geog.  Journal,  April,  1903. 
Enock,  C.  R.     Ecuador.     London,  1914.     South  American  Series. 


THE   PANAMA  CANAL 

AS  the  Republic  of  Panama  belongs  to  Central, 
not  to  South,  America  it  will  not  find  a  place 
in  this  handbook,  but  the  Canal,  which  was  the  occa- 
sion of  transforming  it  from  a  Department  of 
Colombia  to  an  independent  State,  requires  notice. 
The  ports  of  Colon  and  Panama,  indeed,  have  long 
been  the  gates  of  South  America,  and,  joined  as  they 
now  are  by  a  railway,  and  destined  in  a  short  time 
to  be  linked  still  more  effectually  by  the  Canal,  they 
force  themselves  ever  more  and  more  upon  the 
attention  of  the  traveller.  He  will  probably  decide 
to  take  in  the  Isthmus  either  on  his  outward  or  home- 
ward voyage,  and  his  decision  will  be  wise  both  on 
the  score  of  convenience  and  the  immense  interest 
of  the  works  which  may  be  destined  to  effect  a 
revolution  in  the  world's  trade.  To  give  the  history 
cf  projects  and  attempts  to  make  an  Isthmian  Canal 
would  fill  a  large  volume.  Charles  V  is  said  to  have 
entertained  the  scheme,  but  the  wars  of  Spain  with 
various  nations  of  the  world  were  unfavourable  to 
the  arts  of  peace,  and  undoubtedly  the  disastrous 
failure  of  the  Darien  Expedition  in  the  reign  of 
William  III  gave  little  encouragement  to  our  country- 
men to  engage  in  pacific  enterprise  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  However,  neither  Great  Britain  nor  the 
United  States  ever  lost  sight  of  it,  as  is  shown  by 
the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850,  which  provided 


222       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

that  neither  Government  should  obtain  or  maintain 
exclusive  control  over  any  canal  which  might  be 
cut  through  the  Isthmus,  nor  build  fortifications 
thereon.  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869 
showed  the  mighty  possibilities  of  this  type  of 
engineering,  and  eventually  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps, 
who  had  been  brilliantly  successful  in  the  Eastern 
work,  formed  a  company  to  undertake  a  twin  enter- 
prise in  the  West.  Designing  to  make  a  sea-level 
canal,  the  French  began  operations  in  1881,  and 
worked  till  1889.  Their  engineering  and  machinery 
were  superb,  and  they  actually  accomplished  nearly 
one-third  of  the  necessary  excavation  (40  million 
cubic  yards  out  of  129  millions),  but,  as  is  well 
known,  reckless  finance  ruined  them,  and  neglect  of 
sanitation  helped  in  the  same  direction.  The 
Company  fell  with  a  great  crash  in  1889,  after  about 
60  millions  sterling  had  been  spent  or  embezzled.  A 
new  French  Company  was  soon  formed,  which,  by 
keeping  the  works  from  deterioration,  marked  time, 
so  to  speak,  till  1904.  Meanwhile  a  rival  North 
American  Company  became  engaged  upon  the 
Nicaragua  Canal,  but  in  1893  it  also  fell  into  finan- 
cial difficulties  from  want  of  funds.  The  United 
States  Government  looked  upon  this  route  with 
some  favour,  and  in  1898  the  war  with  Spain  re- 
minded it  that,  from  a  naval  standpoint  at  least,  the 
Canal  was  an  urgent  question.  Great  Britain  in  1901 
surrendered  all  her  rights  under  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty  of  1850  ;  the  treaty  by  which  the  surrender 
was  confirmed  was  called  the  Hay-Pauncefote. 

The  French  Company  agreed  to  hand  over  all  its 
plant  to  the  United  States  Government  for  about 
eight  millions  sterling.  Nothing  now  remained  but 
to  deal  with  the  Colombian  Government,  of  which 
Panama  formed  a  part,  and  a  treaty  was  arranged 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  223 

by  which  the  United  States  were  to  acquire  the 
Canal  Zone  (a  strip  of  land  extending  5  miles  on 
each  side  of  the  route)  for  $10,000,000  down  and  a 
yearly  payment  of  $100,000,  to  begin  after  nine  years. 
Colombia,  at  that  time,  was  in  a  revolutionary  and 
distracted  state,  and  various  circumstances  led  her  to 
believe  that  she  could  obtain  better  terms,  which, 
indeed,  were  remarkably  unfavourable  to  her.  Ac- 
cordingly, on  August  12,  1903,  the  Colombian  Senate 
rejected  the  treaty.  The  people  of  the  Panama 
Department,  fearing  that  they  would  lose  their  Canal, 
broke  out  into  revolution  and  proclaimed  themselves 
independent  on  November  4th.  On  November  yth 
the  United  States  recognized  the  new  Republic  of 
Panama,  and  prevented  Colombia  from  making  any 
efforts  to  put  down  the  revolution.  This  gross  viola- 
tion  of  international  law  has  made  the  United  States  - 
justly  feared  and  hated  in  Latin  America.  Had  the 
European  nations  behaved  in  the  same  manner  in 
1861,  the  history  of  the  United  States  would  have 
lasted  less  than  a  hundred  years.  The  denial  of  the 
United  States  that  they  fomented  the  revolution  is 
obviously  absurd,  and  is  answered  by  the  fact  that 
M.  Bunau-Varilla,  who  admittedly  fomented  it,  was  the 
first  Minister  to  the  United  States  appointed  by  the 
Republic  of  Panama.  The  United  States  refused  to 
submit  the  question  to  the  Hague  Tribunal. 

Long  before  the  new  Republic  had  been  constituted, 
the  United  States  made  with  the  Revolutionists  the 
Hay- Bunau-Varilla  Treaty,  which  was  practically  the 
same  as  that  which  had  been  rejected  by  Colombia. 
One  clause  in  it  was  to  this  effect :  "  The  Republic  of 
Panama  further  grants  to  the  United  States  in  per- 
petuity the  use,  occupation  and  control  of  any  other 
lands  and  waters  outside  the  Zone  above  described 
which  may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  con- 


224       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

struction,  maintenance,  operation,  sanitation  and  pro- 
tection of  said  Canal."  Thus  the  Revolutionists  not 
only  alienated  the  most  valuable  strip  of  Panama,  but 
practically  agreed  to  surrender  the  whole  country  on 
demand.  From  that  time  the  Republic  of  Panama  has 
been,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  protectorate  of  the 
United  States. 

The  way  was  thus  cleared,  and  the  financial  future 
of  the  Canal  was  secure,  backed  by  the  unlimited 
resources  of  the  United  States.  The  making  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  (this  is  the  official  name)  was  entrusted 
to  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  which  was  consti- 
tuted early  in  1904.  General  Davis,  the  chief  member 
of  the  Commission,  was  appointed  Civil  Governor  of 
the  Canal  Zone  ;  he  was  assisted  by  six  other  Commis- 
sioners. The  first  Commission  had  to  encounter  very 
great  difficulties  and  was  unsuccessful  in  meeting  them; 
resignations  were  numerous.  President  Roosevelt 
found  it  necessary  to  take  energetic  measures  and  to 
make  many  changes.  At  last,  in  1907,  a  new  Com- 
mission was  appointed,  and  Colonel  George  W. 
Goethals  was  nominated  its  Chairman  and  Engineer- 
in-Chief,  and  the  immense  progress  hitherto  made  is 
due  more  than  anything  else  to  his  organizing  ability 
and  strength  of  character.  He  is,  like  several  other 
members  of  the  Commission,  an  officer  in  the  Corps 
of  Engineers.  The  United  States  Government  wisely 
abandoned  civilian  control,  and  gave  the  task  of  con- 
structing the  Canal  to  the  War  Department.  Journalists 
love  to  tell  of  the  despotic  methods  and  benevolent 
attention  to  detail  which  characterize  Colonel  Goethals. 
In  1912  he  was  appointed  Civil  Governor  of  the  Canal 
Zone.  He  has  unlimited  powers  and  there  is  no  appeal 
against  him.  The  excellence  of  the  police  of  the  Canal 
Zone  would  be  greatly  appreciated  in  any  other  part  of 
the  territory  belonging  to  the  United  States.  As  has 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  225 

been  already  said,  the  difficulties  confronting  Colonel 
Goethals  were  enormous,  and  one  of  the  principal  lay 
in  the  unhealthiness  of  the  Isthmus,  for  the  country 
between  Panama  and  Colon  is  very  malarious  in  the 
low-lying  parts,  and  the  whole  district  was  subject  to 
epidemics  of  yellow  fever.  Unnumbered  multitudes 
died  of  it  during  the  French  period  of  construction. 
M.  Bunau-Varilla  said  :  "  Subtle  and  fugitive,  the 
mysterious  disease  seems  to  defy  all  observation,  to 
laugh  at  all  remedies.  The  victim  whom  it  has  struck 
is  in  the  hands  of  hazard.  The  most  erudite  and 
devoted  physicians  must  content  themselves  with  ad- 
ministering, not  remedies  which  will  check  the  pro- 
gress of  the  malady,  but  simple  palliatives,  the  effects 
of  which  were  more  moral  than  real." 

Hygiene  was,  therefore,  the  first  consideration,  for, 
as  Colonel  Gorgas,  the  head  of  the  Sanitation  Depart- 
ment, at  once  reported  :  "  The  experience  of  our  pre- 
decessors was  ample  to  convince  us  that  unless  we 
could  protect  our  force  against  yellow  fever  and 
malaria  we  would  be  unable  to  accomplish  the  work." 
Fortunately,  it  had  been  discovered  by  Colonel  Ronald 
Ross  that  malaria  is  caused  by  the  bite  of  the  female 
species  of  the  anopheline  mosquito,  and  a  campaign 
was  commenced  against  this  noxious  insect.  Mosquito- 
proof  huts  were  built,  drainage  improved,  and  stagnant 
pools  drained  or  filled  up,  or,  failing  that,  treated  with 
petroleum  to  kill  the  larvae,  and  brushwood  was  cleared 
away.  The  same  proceedings  were  taken  against  the 
stegomyia  mosquito,  whose  bite  causes  the  yellow 
fever.  Here  the  success  was  wonderful,  and  yellow 
fever  has  been  banished  from  Panama.  Typhoid 
fever  is  largely  caused  by  the  common  house-fly,  and 
this  noxious  creature  is  destroyed  as  far  as  possible, 
and  all  rubbish  which  harbours  it  is  daily  burned. 
The  following  table  shows  how  marked  the  improve- 
ment has  been  : 

Q 


226       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

1907  Average  number         Total  deaths         Rate  per  1,000 

White  employees  10,709  179  1671 

Black  employees  28,634  953  33'28 

39>343  1,132  2877 

1909  Average  number          Total  deaths          Rate  per  1,000 

White  employees  12,300  145  11*9 

Black  employees  32,000  380  11-9 

44,300  525  11-9 

The  general  health  of  the  Canal  Zone,  which,  of 
course,  includes  a  large  number  of  persons  besides  the 
labourers,  has  greatly  improved ;  the  death-rate  is  now 
25  per  1,000. 

The  superior  class  of  employees  are  said  to  be  on 
the  "  gold  roll,"  because  they  are  paid  in  American 
dollars,  while  the  bulk  are  described  as  on  the  u  silver 
roll,"  being  paid  in  the  Panama  dollar,  which  is  worth 
2S.  id.  Such  white  navvies  as  are  engaged  are  nearly 
all  Spaniards  and  number  about  5,000,  and  the  other 
white  workers — either  superintendents  or  superior 
mechanics — are  usually  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
Most  of  the  negroes  are  British  subjects,  and  make 
excellent  navvies,  those  from  Barbados  and  Jamaica 
being  the  best.  The  difficulties  regarding  hygiene 
and  the  labour  supply  have  been  triumphantly  sur- 
mounted by  skilled  sanitation,  organization,  and  an 
efficient  police. 

It  is  believed  that  the  engineering  difficulties  also, 
which  have  been  a  subject  of  hot  controversy,  have 
been  satisfactorily  settled.  M.  de  Lesseps  designed  a 
tide-level  canal  and  intended  to  carry  away  the  waters 
of  the  Chagres  River  to  the  sea  by  channels.  This 
scheme  is  still  attractive  to  many.  Mr.  Vaughan 
Cornish  x  says  : — 

1  The  Panama  Canal  and  its  Makers,  pp.  52-3.   For  the  account 
of  the  Canal  (which  I  have  only  inspected  between  the  Culebra 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  227 

"The  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers,  summoned 
by  President  Roosevelt  in  1905  to  advise  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  recommended,  in  a  majority  report, 
a  tide-level  canal  as  practicable  and  best  fulfilling  the 
national  requirements  denned  by  the  Spooner  Act  of 
1902.  But  whereas  they  had  detailed  schemes  for 
high-level  canals  before  them,  they  were,  in  the  matter 
of  the  sea-level  project,  at  the  disadvantage  of  having 
to  act  in  a  constructive  capacity  and  elaborate  the 
details  of  a  scheme  before  they  could  criticize  it. 
Moreover,  five  of  the  eight  who  constituted  the 
majority  were  European  engineers,  who  returned  to 
their  duties  as  soon  as  the  report  was  drafted." 

For  good  or  evil,  Congress,  in  1906,  adopted  the 
minority  report  in  favour  of  an  85-foot-level  lock 
canal,1  and  although  the  decision  has  been  adversely 
criticized  by  the  French  engineer  M.  Bunau-Varilla 
and  others,  it  seems  to  be  in  a  fair  way  to  success. 

The  total  length  of  the  Canal,  from  deep  water  in 
Limon  Bay  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific,  is  50^  miles  ; 
the  crux  of  the  position  is  the  Gatun  Dam.  The 
channel  begins  in  Limon  Bay  and  runs  for  7  miles 
to  the  Gatun  Dam,  which  has  converted  the  old  bed 
of  the  Chagres  into  a  lake  with  an  area  of  164  square 
miles.  The  dimensions  are  (see  Mr.  Martin's  article) 
as  follows  :  length,  almost  ij  miles ;  J  mile  wide  at 
its  base,  400  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface,  100  feet 
at  the  top  ;  with  its  crest  the  elevation  will  be  115  feet 
above  mean  sea-levels,  or  30  feet  above  the  normal 

Cut  and  Panama)  I  am  indebted  largely  to  this  book,  and  also  to 
the  valuable  article  by  Mr.  Percy  F.  Martin,  F.R.G.S.,  in  the 
Engineer  of  June  9,  1910. 

1  The  principal  reasons  in  its  favour  were :  (i)  Greater 
capacity  for  traffic  than  would  be  afforded  by  the  narrow  water- 
way proposed  by  the  majority  ;  (2)  greater  safety  ;  (3)  quicker 
passage  ;  (4)  shorter  time  for  construction  ;  (5)  less  cost. 


228       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

level  of  the  lake.  Here  are  the  first  three  pairs  of 
docks  (the  Gatun),  with  a  lift  of  85  feet.  There  will 
then  be  a  clear  course  of  some  24  miles  to  the  Culebra 
Cut — where  the  traveller  will  no  longer  be  able  to  see 
the  marvellous  spectacle  of  thousands  of  men  cutting 
through  a  mountain — and  here  the  bottom  width  will 
be  narrower,  reduced  from  500  feet  to  300  feet.  At  the 
fortieth  milestone  is  Pedro  Miguel,  and  here  is  another 
pair  of  locks  with  a  lift  of  a  little  more  than  30  feet. 
Two  miles  farther  on  comes  Mira  Flores,  with  two 
pairs  of  locks  having  a  combined  lift  of  a  little  more 
than  34  feet,  and  then  the  Canal  at  sea-level  will  make 
its  way  by  Balboa  into  the  deep  water  of  the  Pacific. 

The  whole  success  of  the  Canal  depends  on  the  Gatun 
Dam,  and  President  Taft's  Commission  declared  them- 
selves satisfied  as  to  its  stability.  Fortunately  this  part 
of  the  Isthmus  is  outside  the  earthquake  zone. 

In  October,  1913,  the  Gamboa  dyke,  the  last  serious 
obstruction,  was  blown  up,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in 
a  few  months  the  landslide  which  partially  blocks  the 
Culebra  Cut  will  be  cleared  away. 

It  is  expected  that  the  Canal  will  be  open  to  traffic  on 
January  i,  1915  ;  it  will  have  cost  at  least  .£80,000,000. 
The  United  States  will  gain  greatly  in  saving  of 
distance,  as  the  following  figures  will  show  : — 


Miles 

From  New  York  to  San  Francisco — 

By  Magellan         I3>r35 

By  Panama           ...  •     5,262 

Distance  saved    7*873 

From  New  York  to  Callao — 

By  Magellan          9,613 

By  Panama           3,363 

Distance  saved     6,250 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  229 

From  New  York  to  Valparaiso — 

By  Magellan         8,380 

By  Panama  4*633 

Distance  saved     3»747 

From  New  York  to  Yokohama — 

By  Suez      I4>924 

By  Panama           9,219 

Distance  saved     5,7°5 

The  convenience  to  England  is  less. 

Miles 

From  Liverpool  to  San  Francisco — 

By  Magellan         13.502 

By  Panama  7,836 

Distance  saved     5,666 

From  Liverpool  to  Cailao — 

By  Magellan         9,980 

By  Panama  5»937 

Distance  saved     4>°43 

From  Liverpool  to  Wellington — 

By  Suez      ».  12,989 

By  Panama           11,425 

Distance  saved     1,564 

That  the  Panama  Canal  will  be  a  commercial  suc- 
cess in  the  near  future  is  an  impossibility.  The  chief 
export  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America  is 
nitrate,  and  this  is  now  conveyed  to  Europe  by  sailing 
vessels  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  in  all 
probability  will  continue  to  be  so  conveyed.  There  is 
little  saving  in  distance  from  Iquique  to  Liverpool  by 
adopting  the  Panama  route,  nor  is  there  much  object 
in  saving  time  or  distance  with  such  a  cargo.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  Canal  will  develop  the  Pacific  coast, 
but  it  will  not  make  the  conveyance  of  produce  over 
hundreds  of  miles  of  mountain  road  any  easier  or 
cheaper.  When  the  internal  communications  of 


230       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Peru  are  improved,  the  Canal 
will  be  helpful  to  those  countries,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
see  how  Buenaventura  or  Esmeraldas  will  benefit  by 
being  able  to  send  their  goods  to  their  destination 
more  rapidly.  There  are  already  more  than  enough 
ships  to  carry  their  goods.  If  the  Canal  tolls  are  high 
ships  will  not  use  it,  and  if  they  are  low  they  will 
hardly  pay  the  interest  on  capital.  Of  course  the  trade 
of  New  York  with  China  and  Japan  should  be  stimu- 
lated, and  many  people  in  the  United  States  look  with 
complacency  on  the  prospect  of  the  Canal  competition 
hitting  fairly  hard  the  great  railway-lines  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  some  affect  to  think  that 
the  Mexican  railways  will  be  formidable  competitors,  but 
it  is  hardly  likely  that  either  they  or  the  lines  that  cross 
Costa  Rica  or  Guatemala  will  have  sufficient  facilities 
to  make  much  impression  on  the  Canal  traffic.  How- 
ever, the  general  conditions  are  not  such  as  to  make 
us  anticipate  that  the  Panama  will  enjoy  anything  like 
the  prosperity  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Again,  the  American 
flag  is  seldom  seen  in  South  American  ports  ;  apart, 
therefore,  from  the  receipt  of  the  Canal  tolls,  other 
nations  will  derive  more  benefit  from  it  than  the 
United  States. 

However,  the  question  of  commercial  results  is 
secondary  ;  the  real  cause  of  the  Canal  was  anxiety  for 
the  safety  of  the  navy,  which  was  liable  to  be  destroyed 
by  an  inferior  force  so  long  as  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
fleets  were  unable  to  render  mutual  support.  In  that 
respect  the  new  waterway  will  doubtless  be  very 
valuable,  but  it  may  probably  cost  .£4,000,000  a  year 
in  efficient  upkeep.  With  the  object  of  making  it 
effective  in  naval  strategy  the  United  States  are  forti- 
fying the  Canal  in  flagrant  violation  of  the  Hay- 
Pauncefote  Treaty.  A  more  serious  violation  of 
solemn  pledges  is  the  proposal  to  exempt  coasting 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  231 

vessels  which  fly  the  Stars  and  Stripes  from  the  Canal 
dues — a  proposal  which  has  aroused  considerable  in- 
dignation among  the  better  classes  in  the  United 
States.  President  Wilson  is  anxious  to  maintain  the 
national  good  faith  in  this  respect,  and  it  may  be  that 
by  the  time  this  is  published  the  matter  will  have  been 
honourably  settled.  The  Panama  Canal,  which  is 
being  made  by  the  War  Department,  is  more  a  military 
than  a  commercial  venture,  but  it  will  undoubtedly 
bring  considerable  material  benefit  both  to  North  and 
South  America. 

PANAMA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  and 
the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  serve  Panama. 
There  is  a  fast  weekly  service  to  Callao,  a  10  days'  service  to 
Guayaquil,  and  numerous  services  to  all  the  Pacific  ports  by 
slower  boats.  The  first-class  fare  to  Guayaquil  is  £10  ios., 
to  Callao  ;£i8,  and  to  Valparaiso  ^30.  The  Panama  Railroad 
Steamship  Line  has  a  frequent  service  to  San  Francisco  and 
all  intermediate  ports.  The  steamer  disembarks  passengers 
at  Balboa  (Bocas  del  Toro),  about  2  miles  from  Panama. 

RAILWAYS — The  Panama  Railway  was  opened  in  1855.  It  cost 
8,000,000  dollars  .and  an  enormous  number  of  human  lives. 
The  fare  to  Colon  is  125.  6d.x  It  is  an  uncomfortable  line 
and  the  luggage  charges  are  high.  The  station  is  near  the 
Tivoli  Hotel. 

HOTELS— The  Tivoli  at  Ancon  in  the  Canal  Zone,  but  close  to  the 
town  (£i  a  day).  This  is  probably  the  most  comfortable 
hotel  between  the  Isthmus  and  Cape  Horn  ;  the  rooms  are 
cool  and  mosquito-proof,  and  the  table  is  very  good.  The 
Central,  in  Panama  itself,  somewhat  less  expensive. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Sir  Claude  Mallet  is  Minister  Resident  and 
Consul-General ;  Vice-Consul,  P.  Helyar  ;  Pro-Consul,  E.  S. 
H  umber. 

BANK — The  International  Banking  Company. 

NEWSPAPERS — Unimportant. 


1  The  traveller  should  remember  that  the  Panama  dollar — the 
"  tin  dollar,"  as  it  is  called — is  worth  only  2s.  id.,  half  of  the 
American  dollar. 


232       A  GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  Bay  of  Panama,  which  is  studded  with  islands, 
is  very  picturesque,  with  a  view  of  green  hills  rising  on 
the  mainland.  On  one  of  the  islands  may  be  seen  the 
graves  of  a  number  of  officers  and  men  of  the  United 
States  man-of-war  the  Chesapeake,  the  victims  of 
yellow  fever.  A  drive  of  some  2  miles  takes  us  to  the 
town.  Panama,  with  37,505  inhabitants,  is  a  some- 
what ramshackle  place.  It  is  not  in  the  Canal  Zone. 
The  Americans  have  greatly  improved  the  town,  which 
was  not  only  insanitary  but  also  disreputable  in  the 
French  days.  It  contains  little  of  interest,  although 
the  houses  are  comfortable  in  appearance  and  some 
are  picturesque,  being  built  in  the  Spanish  style  with 
pleasant  patios.  But  the  streets,  narrow  and  crooked, 
have  a  shabby  appearance,  and  the  shops,  mostly  kept 
by  Chinese,  are  poor.  Small  remains  of  the  great 
wall,  built  in  1573,  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  town, 
which  was  founded  in  1519  on  a  site  7  miles 
away  by  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  is  the  oldest  Spanish 
town  in  South  America,  and  has  always  been  an 
important  place.  The  trade  was  very  large.  An 
English  traveller1  in  1572  says:  "The  ships  which  go 
out  of  Spain  with  goods  for  Peru  go  to  Nombre  de 
Dios,  and  there  discharge  the  said  goods ;  and  from 
thence  they  be  carried  over  the  neck  of  a  land,  unto 
a  port  town  in  the  South  sea,  called  Panama,  which 
is  17  leagues  distant  from  Nombre  de  Dios.  And  there 
they  do  ship  their  goods  again,  and  so  from  there  go 
to  Peru."  Some  years  later  a  Spaniard  gives  an 
interesting  description  of  Panama,  in  which  he  points 
out  that,  in  spite  of  the  strong  fortifications,  it  lay 
very  open,  especially  on  the  side  of  Nombre  de  Dios, 
and  was  liable  to  be  "  spoiled  by  the  pirates."  It  was, 
in  fact,  these  pirates  who  were  a  lasting  thorn  in  the 
side  of  Panama,  although  that  city  was  more  fortunate 
1  Hakluyt,  xi.  pp.  391,  392. 


THE   PANAMA  CANAL  233 

than  Nombre  de  Dios  in  being  on  the  Pacific  side, 
and  therefore  less  exposed  to  their  attacks.  Still,  it  was 
several  times  sacked.  Sometimes,  however,  the  spoilers 
failed,  and  several  of  the  crew  of  the  noted  Oxenham 
were  hanged  at  Panama.  In  1670  Morgan  sacked 
Portobello.  Having  carried  off  his  booty  to  Cuba, 
he  soon  returned  with  a  like  design  against  Panama. 
He  landed  in  October  and  seized  a  Spanish  castle  on 
the  Chagres  River.  In  the  January  of  the  next  year  he 
appeared  before  Panama,  and  captured  it  after  hard 
fighting ;  after  the  battle  fearful  cruelties  were  per- 
petrated by  the  victorious  pirates.  When  he  returned 
to  England  he  was  knighted  by  Charles  II,  but  it  was 
felt  that  the  methods  of  the  buccaneers  could  not 
continue,  especially  as  the  relations  between  England 
and  Spain  were  improving,  and  Sir  Henry  Morgan 
himself  was  sent  out  to  suppress  piracy.  Panama  was 
rebuilt  in  1673  upon  its  present  site  with  a  massive 
wall  encircling  it.  The  next  affair  of  importance  on 
the  Isthmus  was  the  disastrous  Darien  enterprise, 
which  brought  ruin  or  death  upon  many  thousands 
of  Scotchmen. 

The  history  of  the  town  during  the  eighteenth 
century  is  uneventful,  nor  did  it  take  a  prominent 
part  in  the  revolt  against  Spain.  New  Panama  had 
never  been  as  prosperous  as  Old,  and  moreover 
suffered  much  from  fires  and  earthquakes  ;  it  followed 
the  universal  rule  of  decline  which  came  upon  every 
part  of  South  America  when  "  liberated"  from  Spain. 
However,  towards  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  development  of  California  and  the  west 
of  North  America  generally  drew  traffic  to  the  Isthmus, 
and  in  1855  the  Panama  Railway  was  built.  Since 
that  time  Panama  has  been  a  comparatively  busy 
place,  but  suffered  terribly  from  yellow  fever.  Since 
the  North  American  occupation  it  has  become  a 


234       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

healthy  town.  Panama  is  a  more  agreeable  place 
of  residence  than  Colon,  and  it  is  desirable  to  stay 
here  while  inspecting  the  Canal.  One  stroll  through 
the  town  will  exhaust  its  interests,  and,  as  the  Canal 
is  accessible  at  all  points  by  rail,  a  very  few  days  will 
suffice  for  it  and  such  other  modest  attractions  as 
there  are  in  the  way  of  excursions.  Moreover  the 
Canal  itself  is  rapidly  becoming  less  interesting ;  the 
panorama  of  the  Culebra  Cut  has  vanished,  and  there 
will  soon  be  little  more  to  see  than  there  is  at  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  traveller  will  not  be  sorry  to  leave, 
for  the  climate  is  very  enervating,  and  his  only  regret  will 
be  the  Tivoli  Hotel.  It  will  be  long  before  he  comes 
across  anything  of  the  kind  again  in  Latin  America. 

The  Cathedral,  standing  in  the  principal  Plaza,  was 
completed  in  1760;  it  has  two  handsome  towers  which 
are  decorated  with  mother-of-pearl.  The  church  of 
San  Felipe  Neri  was  built  in  1688.  There  is  a  pleasant 
drive  to  Old  Panama  through  the  sugar-fields.  Here 
are  a  few  ruins  overgrown  by  rank  vegetation  near 
the  sea.  It  is  interesting  as  the  first  spot  where  the 
Spaniards  built  a  city  in  the  New  World.  Miraflores, 
Empire  and  Gatun  will  all  have  to  be  visited  by  rail 
when  the  Canal  is  inspected.  The  coolest  time  in 
Panama  is  from  November  to  February,  but  the  heat 
is  never  remarkable ;  it  is,  however,  trying  owing  to 
its  extreme  humidity.  The  climate  resembles  that  of 
Bombay  City ;  the  temperature  never  reaches  100° 
Fahr.,  and  the  climate  is  extremely  equable.  The 
maximum  temperature  ranges  from  81*6°  to  86*1°,  and 
the  lowest  from  74°  to  76-6°.  Thus  the  visitor  may  be 
assured  of  never  feeling  cool.  He  will  also  seldom 
feel  dry,  especially  if  he  visits  the  town  after  March, 
when,  apart  from  the  perspiration,  he  will  be  con- 
stantly caught  in  drenching  showers.  The  annual 
rainfall  of  Panama  is  60  inches. 


THE   PANAMA  CANAL  235 

COLON 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— Colon  has  very  numerous  means  of  com- 
munication with  Europe  and  New  York.  The  steamers  of 
the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  call  fortnightly  and 
proceed  back  to  Southampton  by  way  of  the  West  Indies. 
The  same  line  has  a  frequent  service  to  New  York — first- 
class  fare  £15  125.  6d.  The  Leyland  line  from  Liverpool 
calls  about  three  times  a  month.  The  Elders  and  Fyffes 
line  sails  from  time  to  time  for  Bristol  or  Liverpool.  The 
Cie.  Gen.  Transatlantique  gives  a  monthly  service  to  France, 
La  Veloce  to  Italy,  and  the  Cia.  Transatlantica  de  Barcelona 
to  Spain.  Communications  with  New  York  and  the  West 
Indies,  in  addition  to  those  already  given,  are  numerous 
through  the  Hamburg- America,  the  Panama  Railroad  Steam- 
ship Line,  the  United  Fruit  Company,  and  others.  The  ports 
of  Central  America  and  Mexico  are  visited  by  many  of  the 
lines  that  go  to  New  York. 

RAILWAYS — The  Panama  Railway  connects  Colon  with  Panama. 
The  journey  takes  about  2$  hours,  and  there  are  views  of 
dense  jungle  interspersed  by  banana  patches. 

HOTELS — A  large  and  expensive  hotel,  called  the  Washington, 
has  just  been  built  by  the  United  States.  A  room  costs 
about  I2S.  a  day.  At  the  Imperial  Hotel  a  room  costs  about 
45.  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Consul,  H.  O.  Chalkley.  Vice-Consul,  J.  R. 
Murray. 

BANK — International  Banking  Corporation. 

N  EWSPAPERS— Inconsiderable. 

Colon,  with  17,748  inhabitants,  is  a  modern  town, 
its  site  having  been  selected  in  1850  as  the  terminus 
of  the  Panama  Railway.  It  was  called  Aspinwall,  after 
William  Aspinwall,  the  American  who  was  responsible 
for  the  railway,  but  the  name  was  afterwards  changed 
to  Colon  in  honour  of  Christopher  Columbus.  This 
place,  which  has  little  to  interest  the  traveller,  is 
outside  the  Canal  Zone,  but,  as  at  Panama,  the 
American  quarter  adjoins,  and  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  have  exercised  the  rights  which  it 
possesses  of  improving  the  sanitation,  so  that  Colon  is 


236       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

a  fairly  healthy  town.  The  rainfall  amounts  to  over 
100  inches  yearly.  Here  the  traveller,  according  to 
the  plan  mapped  out,  will  end  his  experience  of  Latin 
America,  and  sail  homewards  by  way  of  the  West 
Indies  or  New  York. 

Literature  upon  the  Panama  Canal  is  now  tolerably  large  and 
is  rapidly  increasing.  The  following  books  contain  useful 
information: — 

Cornish,  Vaughan.    The  Panama  Canal  and  its  Makers.    London, 

1909. 
Edwards,  A.     Panama :  the  Canal,  the  Country,  and  the  People. 

London,  1911. 

Lindsay,  Forbes.  Panama  and  the  Canal  To-day.   London,  1912. 
Eraser,  John  Foster.     Panama  and   What  it  Means.     London, 


v 


9 


IP 


\-3 
\ 
\ 


PARAGUAY 

PARAGUAY  is  the  smallest  of  the  South  American 
Republics,  except  Uruguay,  having  an  area  of 
145,400  square  miles  and  an  estimated  population 
of  800,000.  The  remote  situation  and  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  its  history  have  combined  to  retard 
the  Republic's  progress  ;  but  the  improvement  of  its 
communications  has  made  this  remoteness  a  thing 
of  the  past,  and  if  political  conditions  improve,  there 
is  hope  of  an  era  of  prosperity.  A  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  inhabitants  are  pure  Indians,  but  the 
majority,  though  white,  are  of  mixed  blood  (Spanish 
and  Guarani)  and  speak  Guarani  or  lengua  general, 
as  well  as  Spanish.  The  country  is  divided  into  two 
uneven  parts  by  the  River  Paraguay,  and  of  these 
the  smaller  or  western  belongs  geographically  to  the 
Argentine  Chaco  and,  being  subject  to  constant  floods 
owing  to  its  excessive  flatness  and  having  a  salty  soil, 
is  probably  of  little  agricultural  value.  A  traveller 
says  :  "  For  nine  months  of  the  year  the  interior  of 
the  Chaco  is  one  vast  swamp,  so  far  as  is  known  at 
present.  During  a  2oo-mile  ride,  including  the  return 
journey,  over  a  tract  chosen  by  the  Indians  as  being 
the  highest  and  driest,  I  can  safely  say  that  180  miles 
lay  through  water,  and  this  in  the  middle  of  November, 
with  the  sun  almost  vertical."  The  climate,  however, 
is  said  to  be  tolerably  healthy,  if  the  mosquito-infested 
ground  near  the  river  be  avoided.  The  malaria  is 

239 


24o       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

fortunately  of  a  mild  type.  The  eastern  division  of 
Paraguay  has  much  greater  natural  advantages,  being 
hilly  and  well  wooded.  The  general  climate  is  pleasant 
and  healthy,  with  nine  months  of  "  perpetual  "  spring, 
and  three  hot  months,  namely  December,  January, 
and  February.  The  best  time  to  visit  the  country 
is  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  or  August, 
when  the  climate  is  delightful.  The  geology  of  Para- 
guay has  been  imperfectly  investigated.  A  large  part 
of  the  surface  is  covered  with  Quaternary  deposits, 
and  the  rocks  in  the  hilly  parts  are  composed  of 
red  sandstone,  as  is  the  case  with  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 

Paraguay  is  divided  into  two  botanical  zones — the 
eastern  and  the  western.  The  eastern,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  the  more  fertile  and  valuable  portion 
of  the  country,  is  largely  covered  with  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  forests.  The  western  division  is  a  vast 
swamp,  dotted  with  forests.  All  over  the  Republic 
the  valuable  quebracho  Colorado  (axe-breaker)  is  to  be 
found,  the  best  timber  in  South  America,  which  also 
yields  a  highly  prized  extract.  This  has  been  else- 
where noticed.  Not  less  economically  valuable  is 
the  Ilex  paraguayensis  or  yerba  mate,  which  yields 
the  famous  Paraguay  tea,  an  article  which  from  the 
first  attracted  the  curiosity  of  the  Jesuits  and  Spanish 
settlers,  and  has  often  been  described.  Oranges  and 
tobacco  are  other  important  products,  and  there  are 
numbers  of  dye-woods  and  medicinal  plants. 

The  fauna  of  Paraguay  is  large  and  varied,  bearing 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  that  of  Brazil.  The 
rivers  swarm  with  crocodiles,  of  which  the  largest 
example  is  the  yacare  (Alligator  sclerops).  There  are 
several  very  venomous  snakes,  including  the  rattle- 
snake and  the  little  green  fiacanina.  There  are  also 
boas,  and  many  huge  and  dangerous  watersnakes. 
The  puma,  jaguar  and  tiger-cat  (Felis  Geoffroi)  are 


PARAGUAY  241 

the  principal  savage  animals.  The  wild  dog  (Canis 
jubatus)  is  large  and  fierce,  hunting  in  packs.  The 
peccary,  tapir  and  ant-bear  are  common.  The  birds 
are  almost  as  varied  as  in  Brazil. 


PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

In  1911  the  imports  were  ^1,295,699 
„  exports     „  983>3Sl 

The  imports  consist  principally  of  textiles,  provi- 
sions and  hardware.  The  following  are  the  principal 
importing  countries  : — 

United  Kingdom        ^370,040 

Germany          363,533 

Argentina         154,992 

France 86,300 

Spain 82,725 

United  States 77.905 

Italy      ...        70,371 

Paraguay  is  a  cattle-raising  country,  and  before  the 
disastrous  war  half  a  century  ago  occupied  a  more 
important  position  in  the  trade  than  Argentina,  but 
the  almost  complete  destruction  of  her  male  popu- 
lation ruined  all  her  industries.  Cattle-breeding  has 
since  revived,  and  there  are  many  ranches,  including 
those  of  Lemco.  A  census  taken  in  1902  gave  the 
number  of  horned  cattle  at  3,104,453,  and  this  is 
the  industry  which  is  said  to  offer  the  best  prospects 
to  immigrants.  A  great  quantity  of  dried  meat  and 
hides  is  exported.  The  other  leading  products  are 
tobacco,  yerba  mate,  oranges,  timber  and  quebracho 
extract.  A  recent  Consular  Report  remarks :  "  It  is 
said  that  the  climate  and  soil  are  peculiarly  suitable 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  but  the  cultivation  has 
not  hitherto  been  worked  on  a  commercial  basis.  The 
quality  of  the  cotton  planted  in  the  Chaco  is  said 


242       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

to  be  the  finest  known.  The  average  yield  is  stated 
to  be  about  12  cwt.  of  cotton  (with  seed)  per  acre, 
or  870  Ib.  of  pure  cotton  per  acre.  Coffee,  sugar, 
rice,  manioca  and  other  products  are  grown  for  local 
consumption,  while  essence  of  the  leaves  and  flowers 
of  the  bitter  orange,  which  grows  wild  in  the  forests, 
and  palm  kernels  are  produced  in  some  quantity  for 
export."  Yerba  mate,  which,  like  rubber,  is  both 
collected  wild  from  the  forest  and  cultivated  in 
plantations,  forms  one  of  the  main  industries,  and 
is  the  favourite  beverage  of  the  Plate  countries.  The 
soil  of  Paraguay  is  peculiarly  suited  to  the  raising  of 
tobacco,  which  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able of  its  crops.  Seed  has  been  introduced  from 
Cuba,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  possible  to 
rival  Havannah  tobacco.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
Paraguayan  tobacco  is  the  best  in  South  America. 
The  Paraguayan  timber  is  the  strongest,  hardest,  and 
heaviest  in  the  world.  The  quebracho  Colorado  will 
not  float,  and  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  palo  santo 
(Guayacum  officinalis),  the  caranday  (Copernicia  ceri- 
fera),  the  nandubay  (Acavia  cavenia)  and  several 
other  species.  The  ibyraro  (Ruprechtia  excelsia)  is 
used  for  making  wheels,  the  tatane  (Acacia  maleolus) 
is  valuable  for  boat-building,  and  there  is  abundant 
rosewood  and  various  other  kinds  of  cabinet-wood. 
Oranges  are  grown  abundantly  ;  the  season  is  from 
May  to  August. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Paraguay  is  unexploited,  and 
is  probably  small  compared  with  that  of  most  South 
American  Republics.  Iron,  manganese  and  marble 
are  widely  diffused.  Copper  and  salt  are  also  found. 
The  richest  deposits  of  iron  are  in  the  north, 
especially  between  the  rivers  Apa  and  Aquidaban. 
Under  the  tyrant  Lopez  attempts  were  made  to 
develop  an  iron  industry,  and  a  foundry  was 


PARAGUAY 


243 


established   at    Ibicuy,  but   the   enterprise   has   never 
been  resuscitated. 

The  trade  figures  of  Paraguay  are  not  up  to  date. 
The  following  list  of  the  principal  exports  in  1910 
will  show  the  character  of  its  production : — 


PRINCIPAL  EXPORTS  FROM 

Dried  meat    ... 

Beef  extract  ... 

Quebracho  extract 

Hides- 
Dry 

Salted 

Horns 

Oranges      "   ... 

Tangerines    ... 

Timber- 
Logs,  etc.    ... 
Posts 
Sleepers 
Stakes 

Quebracho     ... 

Tobacco- 
Para 

Pito 

Negro 

Yerba— 
Ground 
Unground  ... 


PARAGUAY  DURING  THE  YEAR  1910 

17,481  cwt. 

8,960  Ib. 

ii.ttfS  metric  tons 


77,005  pieces 
223,877      „ 
6,033  cwt. 
10,895,379  dozen 
442,340      ,, 

94,43 1  metric  tons 

58,543  pieces 

133,488  „ 

718,007  „ 

14,888  metric  tons 

22,942  cwt. 

77,587    „ 
109    „ 

237,263  Ib. 
6,106,159  „ 


The  exports  of  Paraguay  to  the  United  Kingdom 
are  practically  nil,  but  from  Argentina,  which  is 
Paraguay's  largest  customer,  a  considerable  amount 
of  its  produce  probably  finds  its  way  to  English 
ports,  though  classified  as  Argentine  merchandise. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  Paraguay,  like 
Bohemia,  has  no  seacoast. 

The  prosperity  of  Paraguay  is  sadly  hampered  by 
revolutions,  which  are  chronic.  A  considerable 
amount  of  valuable  crops  is  already  raised,  and  the 


244       A   GUIDE  TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

amount  could  be  enormously  increased  if  the  con- 
ditions were  more  satisfactory  and  therefore  attractive 
to  immigrants.  But  the  influx  of  settlers  is  very 
small,  as  the  following  figures  show  :  — 


......    578 

1909    ......       830  1911     ......    389 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  revolutions  of  the  last 
few  years  have  had  the  effect  of  attenuating  even 
this  tiny  stream.  Twenty  years  ago  the  immigration 
was  somewhat  larger  than  it  is  to-day.  Attempts  are 
sometimes  made  to  boom  Paraguay,  but  at  the 
present  time  no  one  ought  to  be  advised  to  go  there 
unless  he  has  plenty  of  capital,  and  then  he  will 
probably  lose  it.  One  or  two  German  settlements  have 
been  established,  and  in  1893  a  number  of  Australians 
were  planted  on  the  soil,  but  the  colony,  called  New 
Australia,  has  not  been  particularly  successful. 

Nearly  all  the  trading  firms  in  Asuncion  and  else- 
where are  German,  and  it  speaks  well  for  the  quality 
of  British  goods  that,  even  with  this  handicap,  we 
have  a  slight  lead  in  the  import  trade. 

Paraguay  has  very  few  manufactures. 

The  only  railway  in  the  country  is  the  Parguayan 
Central  Railway,  which  runs  from  Encarnacion  on 
the  River  Parana  to  the  capital  —  a  distance  of  232 
miles.  The  section  from  Encarnacion  to  Pirapo  was 
only  finished  in  1911,  but  this  yy-mile  line  was  a 
most  valuable  piece  of  work,  for  (now  that  a  train 
ferry  from  Posadas  to  Encarnacion  has  been  provided) 
it  linked  up  Asuncion  with  Buenos  Aires.  Oppor- 
tunity was  then  taken  to  alter  the  gauge  from  5  feet 
6  inches  to  4  feet  8£  inches,  and  so  bring  it  into 
conformity  with  the  Argentine  North-Eastern  Railway. 
Further,  a  short  branch  line  is  to  connect  Villeta, 
which  is  on  the  Paraguay  18  miles  below  Asuncion, 


PARAGUAY  245 

with  the  main  line,  and  this  will  be  a  great  con- 
venience when  the  lowness  of  the  river  prevents 
steamers  from  reaching  the  capital.  Another  line  is 
projected  from  Villa  Rica  to  Iguazu  (near  the  famous 
falls),  and  when  that  is  completed  Asuncion  will 
have  railway  communication  with  the  Brazilian  sea- 
port of  Sao  Francisco. 

CURRENCY  AND  FINANCE 

The  Paraguayan  currency  is  by  no  means  in  a 
satisfactory  condition,  for  the  paper  dollar,  which  is 
the  only  circulating  medium,  is  usually  worth  about 
3|d.  During  1910  the  rate  fluctuated  from  6iJ  dollars 
to  80  to  the  pound  sterling.  Consequently  trade 
becomes  speculative  and  is  seriously  discouraged,  and 
it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  the  efforts  which 
are  being  made  to  effect  a  conversion  will  be  success- 
ful. Not  long  ago  the  Government  began  to  accu- 
mulate a  conversion  fund  by  imposing  an  export  duty 
of  one  dollar  gold  upon  each  hide,  and  it  was  hoped  to 
make  the  paper  dollar  stable  at  5d.  and  to  effect  this  in 
1914.  There  is  no  hope,  however,  that  this  valuable 
reform  will  be  carried  out  in  the  present  year. 

The  following  was  the  estimate  of  revenue  and 
expenditure  for  1911  : — 

REVENUE 

Import  duties £37%>357 

Export  duties 99,228 

Port  charges,  etc.       ...         ...         ...         ...  14,400 

Stamps  and  stamped  paper            J  7,3*4 

Excise 2,171 

Post  office       7,271 

Telegraphs      7,286 

Property  tax   ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  30,485 

Succession  duties      1,714 

Sundries          ...         120,665 

Total     ....         ...  £678,891 


246       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

EXPENDITURE 

Legislature     £*S>937 

Presidency      3,IO7 

Interior            134,682 

Foreign  Affairs          28,015 

Finance           51,800 

Justice,  Worship  and  Public  Instruction  130,133 

War  and  Marine        133,816 

Public  debt  and  pensions 169,348 

Total     ...         ...  666,838 


The   external   debt   is    .£820,017,   an<^   the   internal 


CONSTITUTION 

The  constitution  of  Paraguay  is  of  the  familiar  type, 
consisting  of  a  President,  elected  for  four  years,  a 
Senate,  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  President 
is  assisted  by  five  Ministers.  The  Senate  has  13 
members  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  26.  Each 
Senator  and  Deputy  receives  a  yearly  salary  of  ^320. 
Small  as  the  Republic  is,  the  constitution  is  of  the 
decentralized  type  ;  it  has  been  in  force  since  1870. 
Public  men,  however,  still  prefer  coups  d'etat  to 
constitutional  proceedings,  and  the  Paraguayan  con- 
stitution, excellent  as  it  may  appear  on  paper  to  the 
admirers  of  democratic  forms  of  government,  is 
frequently  inoperative,  and  may  possibly  be  too 
elaborate  for  the  simple  people. 

HISTORY 

The  history  of  Paraguay  is  of  peculiar  interest.  In 
the  beginning  it  promised  to  be  the  headquarters  of 
Spanish  dominion  in  the  Plate  District,  then  the 
country  became  subject  to  two  of  the  most  remark- 
able despotisms  the  world  has  ever  seen  —  that  of  the 
Jesuits  and  (after  an  interval)  of  the  dictator  Francia. 


PARAGUAY  247 

Finally,  in  the  war  of  1864-70,  Paraguay  suffered  a 
calamity  which  destroyed  three-quarters  of  its  popula- 
tion, and  can  hardly  be  paralleled  in  history.  Cabot 
in  1526  penetrated  as  far  as  the  site  of  Asuncion,  but 
it  was  not  till  1537,  after  the  Spanish  failure  at  Buenos 
Aires,  that  Ayolas  actually  founded  Asuncion,  the  first 
permanent  settlement  in  the  Plate  District,  which  his 
successor  Irala  made  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance. The  Governor  was  dependent  upon  the  Viceroy 
of  Peru,  but  his  authority  long  extended  over  Paraguay, 
Uruguay  and  fragments  of  what  are  now  known  as 
the  great  Republics  of  Argentina  and  Brazil.  When, 
however,  Buenos  Aires  was  effectively  refounded  in 
1580,  Asuncion  began  to  wane  before  her  younger  and 
better-situated  rival,  which  in  1620  obtained  a  Governor 
of  her  own,  and  from  this  time  the  Jesuit  mission  is 
the  most  interesting  feature  in  the  history  of  Paraguay. 
Before  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Jesuits  were 
hard  at  work,  spreading  Christianity  among  the  Indians 
and  protecting  them  from  their  oppressors,  but  their 
mission  did  not  become  thoroughly  effective  until 
1608,  when  Philip  III  gave  them  permission  to  con- 
vert the  natives  on  the  Upper  Parana.  In  this  in- 
accessible region,  amidst  unexampled  difficulties,  they 
set  up  a  marvellous  and  benevolent  despotism  which 
lasted  a  century  and  a  half  and  is  one  of  the  most 
renowned  instances  of  the  triumph  of  moral  over 
material  forces.  Although  Asuncion  was  nominally 
their  headquarters,  the  territory  over  which  their 
influence  extended  lay  far  more  in  Brazil  and  Argen- 
tina than  in  Paraguay,  and  they  were  frequently 
exposed  to  the  fierce  hostility  of  the  Spanish  settlers 
at  Asuncion  and  the  Portuguese  at  Sao  Paulo,  both  of 
whom  preferred  exploiting  the  Indians  to  converting 
them.  The  Paulistas  ( Portuguese  of  Sao  Paulo)  carried 
fire  and  sword  into  the  Brazilian  settlements  and 


248       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

expelled  the  Jesuits  with  their  converts.  They,  how- 
ever, worked  with  all  the  more  vigour  in  the  territory 
that  remained  to  them  and  armed  the  Indians  against 
their  cruel  enemies.  The  chief  blow  which  they 
received  was  in  1631,  when  the  Paulistas  invaded 
the  Province  of  Guayra,  where  the  settlement  was  in 
charge  of  the  heroic  Padre  Montoya.  The  Asuncion 
Governor  could  give  no  aid,  and  many  thousands  of 
hapless  Indians  were  carried  away  to  slavery  in  Sao 
Paulo.  Montoya  succeeded  in  bringing  away  12,000 
of  his  flock,  and  they  crossed  the  Parana  near  the 
Guayra  Falls,  marched  down  the  Parana,  and  finally 
established  a  new  settlement  beyond  the  Iguazu. 
Padre  Montoya,  who  deserves  to  be  called  one  of 
the  world's  heroes,  died  at  Lima  many  years  later 
and  has  long  been  forgotten. 

The  Jesuit  dominion  has  been  the  subject  of  praise 
from  hostile  as  well  as  impartial  authorities,  and  the 
chief  adverse  criticism  to  be  made  is  that  its  providence 
for  the  wants  of  the  Indians  and  its  masterly  organiza- 
tion so  deprived  the  people  of  initiative  that,  after 
the  Jesuit  expulsion  by  the  famous  decree  of  1769, 
they  were  left  helpless  and  their  civilization  melted 
away.1 

Meanwhile,  in  1728,  secular  Paraguay  had  been 
detached  from  the  Jesuit  mission  and  became  a 
secluded  and  insignificant  governorship.  It  did  not, 
like  its  neighbours,  accept  the  disturbing  revolutionary 
doctrine  which  led  to  a  crusade  against  Spanish 
authority ;  the  Paraguayan  agriculturist  hated  the 
gaucho,  and  had  no  mind  to  be  ruled  from  Buenos 

1  "  Certain  it  is  that  but  a  few  years  after  their  final  exit  from 
the  missions  between  the  Uruguay  and  the  Paraguay  all  was  con- 
fusion. In  twenty  years  most  of  the  missions  were  deserted,  and 
before  thirty  years  had  passed  no  vestige  of  their  old  prosperity 
remained," — A  Vanished  Arcadia,  p.xi. 


PARAGUAY  249 

Aires.  Belgrano  marched  into  the  country  expecting 
to  be  welcomed,  but  he  was  attacked,  defeated  and 
made  prisoner  by  the  Paraguayans.  Had  they  wel- 
comed the  revolution,  Paraguay  would  undoubtedly 
have  become  a  part  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  How- 
ever, the  country,  although  it  became  independent, 
had  not  forgotten  the  traditions  of  Jesuit  autocracy, 
and  Paraguay  quickly  fell  under  the  despotism  of 
Francia,  which  lasted  from  1816  to  his  death  in  1840. 
Of  him  Carlyle  says  :  "  The  man  Rodriguez  Francia 
passed,  in  a  remote  but  highly  remarkable,  not  un- 
questionable or  unquestioned  manner,  across  the  con- 
fused theatre  of  this  world.  For  some  thirty  years 
he  was  all  the  government  his  native  Paraguay  could 
be  said  to  have.  For  some  six-and-twenty  years  he  was 
express  Sovereign  of  it  ;  for  some  three,  or  some  two 
years,  a  sovereign  with  bared  sword,  stern  as  Rhada- 
manthus  :  through  all  his  days,  since  the  beginning  of 
him,  a  Man  or  Sovereign  of  iron  energy  and  industry, 
of  great  and  severe  labour."  The  account  given  by 
Carlyle  contains  many  inaccuracies  and  is  coloured 
by  prepossessions.  Francia  was  undoubtedly  cruel, 
but  the  verdict  of  Carlyle,  which  is  favourable  with 
qualifications,  contains  a  good  deal  of  truth.  At  all 
events  he  gave  Paraguay  greater  prosperity  than  it  has 
ever  enjoyed  since  his  time.  His  policy  was  to  isolate 
the  country  and  make  it  self-sufficing,  nor  was  he  un- 
successful, but  his  successor,  the  elder  Lopez,  raised 
to  power  by  his  intelligence  and  energy,  resumed 
dealings  with  the  outside  world  and  contrived  to 
involve  himself  in  quarrels  with  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States  and  Brazil.  To  revert  to  Francia,  it 
is  noteworthy  that  Sir  Richard  Burton,  who  is  per- 
haps the  only  other  man  of  genius  who  has  given 
careful  consideration  to  the  Dictator,  who  also  had 
better  materials  for  forming  a  judgment,  is  in  agree- 


250       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

ment  with  Carlyle.  He  remarks :  "  Evidently  the 
Republic  of  the  Dictator  was  a  reproduction  in  a 
somewhat  sterner  mould  of  the  Jesuit  Reduction 
system,  and  it  throve  because  the  popular  mind  was 
prepared  for  it.  ...  He  could  say  with  Solon,  '  I 
have  not  given  you  the  best  possible  laws,  but  those 
laws  that  suit  you  best.'  As  has  been  proved  by  the 
logic  of  facts,  the  people  were  enthusiastic  both  for 
the  system  and  its  administration."  The  .foreign  com- 
plications in  which  the  elder  Lopez  became  involved 
led  him  to  encourage  the  military  tastes  of  his  son 
Francisco,  who  had  been  to  Europe  and  admired  the 
third  Napoleon,  and  eventually  this  policy  proved  fatal 
to  Paraguay. 

Francisco  Lopez,  a  tyrant  hardly  less  extraordinary 
than  Francia  and  far  less  estimable,  succeeded  to 
power  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1862,  and  con- 
tinued his  plans,  which,  he  hoped,  would  make  him 
the  arbiter  of  South  America.  Slowly  and  thoroughly 
he  had  raised,  armed  and  trained  a  fine  army 
numbering  about  60,000,  and  he  watched  his  oppor- 
tunity. Interference  by  Brazil  and  Argentina  in 
the  affairs  of  Uruguay  gave  him  his  pretext,  and 
his  claim  to  take  part  in  the  settlement  led  to 
the  tiny  Paraguay  declaring  war  upon  all  three 
Republics.  The  war  began  in  1864,  and  was  not  as 
hopeless  a  contest  as  might  have  been  supposed, 
owing  to  the  military  talents  of  Lopez  and  his  excel- 
lent army,  which  he  kept  efficient  by  relentlessly 
cruel  discipline.  The  campaigns  have  been  described 
by  the  vivid  pen  of  Sir  Richard  Burton.1  It  will  suffice 
to  say  that  Lopez,  who  with  the  cruelty  of  a  tiger  had 
the  courage  of  a  hero,  fought  skilfully  and  doggedly, 
but  resources  and  numbers  told  their  tale.  Paraguay 
was  overrun  by  the  allies,  and  in  1870  he  fell  fighting 

1  Letters  from  the  Battlefields  of  Paraguay.     Published  1870. 


PARAGUAY  251 

in  the  northern  fastnesses  of  the  country  which  he 
had  ruined.  The  bloodthirsty  tyrant  was  dead,  but 
the  evil  which  he  had  done  lived  after  him  ;  out  of 
a  population  of  800,000,  600,000  are  believed  to  have 
perished  in  the  war,  and  Paraguay  has  never  recovered 
from  the  disaster. 

A  new  constitution  was  drawn  up  in  1870,  but  the 
people,  as  a  whole,  are  apathetic  and  have  little  control 
over  policy  ;  the  monotonous  tale  of  petty  revolutions 
is  all  that  recent  history  has  to  tell.  Salvador  Jovel- 
lanos  was  the  first  President  under  the  new  constitu- 
tion and  had  a  troubled  time.  The  history  of  the 
Republic  is  not  noteworthy  ;  in  the  eighties  it  was  well 
ruled  by  General  Caballero  and  prosperity  slowly 
returned.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  an  unusually 
ample  crop  of  revolutions.  In  1909  Colonel  Jara  began 
to  give  much  trouble  and  deposed  President  Gondra, 
but  in  July,  1910,  Jara's  troops  deserted  him,  and 
Congress  met  and  appointed  Senor  Rojas  as  tem- 
porary President.  Fighting  continued  briskly  and 
Rojas  had  to  resign.  He  was  succeeded  in  his  tem- 
porary post  by  Senor  Pena  in  1911.  At  last  the 
Government  began  to  make  head  against  the 
anarchy,  and  the  arch-disturber  Jara  died  of  wounds 
received  in  battle.  In  the  autumn  of  1911  Senor 
Schaerer  was  elected  President,  and  has  succeeded  in 
maintaining  his  position.  The  traveller  need  not  be 
deterred  from  visiting  Paraguay  by  the  reports  of 
revolution,  for  the  combatants  never  molest  foreigners 
who  avoid  active  participation  in  the  fray.  Neverthe- 
less, these  tumults  inflict  incalculable  harm  upon  a 
promising  country  and  stability  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 
A  strong  man,  with  financial  ability,  could  probably 
renovate  Paraguay,  but  such  a  man  has  not  yet  arisen. 
Recently  the  South  American  Missionary  Society  has 
done  invaluable  work  among  the  uncivilized  Indians. 


252       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

ASUNCION 

STEAMERS — Until  recently  the  only  means  of  reaching  Asuncion 
was  by  water.  The  journey  up-stream  requires  4  or  5 
days,  and  the  return  journey  is  made  in  3.  The  best 
steamers  are  the  Mihanovich  Line.  The  fare  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  Asuncion  is  £8  IDS.  ;  that  from  Asuncion  to 
Buenos  Aires  is  £6  6s.  These  fares  include  meals  and  a 
state-room,  and  the  accommodation  is  excellent.  The 
distance  is  about  1,000  miles. 

RAILWAYS — It  is  now  possible  to  travel  by  the  Paraguay  Central 
Railway  ;  the  journey  occupies  2  days  and  2  nights,  and 
the  fare  is  about  £$  145.  There  are  dining-cars  on  the 
trains. 

HOTELS — Gran  Hotel  del  Paraguay,  good,  about  16  francs  a 
day ;  Hotel  Cosmos,  fair  and  with  moderate  charges ; 
Hotel  Hispano- Americano,  fair  and  moderate  in  charges, 
centrally  located.  In  San  Bernardino,  a  pleasant  resort 
near  Asuncion,  are  Hotel  del  Lago,  very  good  and  terms 
moderate  ;  Hotel  Rasmussen,  fair  and  moderate  in  charges. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— The  British  Minister  is  Sir  Reginald  Tower, 
who  resides  at  Buenos  Aires.  The  British  Consul  is  Consul 
F.  A.  Oliver. 

BANKS — Banco  Mercantil  del  Paraguay,  Banco  Agricola  del 
Paraguay. 

NEWSPAPERS— El  National,  El  Monitor,  El  Tiempo. 

Asuncion  is  a  pleasant  town  with  80,000  inhabitants. 
As  has  been  seen,  it  was  founded  by  Ayolas  in  1536, 
and  is  the  oldest  Spanish  settlement  in  the  Plate 
District  It  was  long  an  important  place,  but  the 
remote  situation  placed  it  at  a  disadvantage  as  com- 
pared with  Buenos  Aires.  During  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  its  consequence  diminished. 
Before  the  war  it  probably  had  a  population  of  nearly 
50,000 ;  in  1868  Burton  estimated  it  at  12,000.  It  is  an 
extremely  sunny,  healthy  place.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture is  72*46°  Fahr.  and  the  average  yearly  rainfall  is 
5173  inches.  The  temperature  hardly  ever  reaches 
100°  or  falls  as  low  as  40°.  The  town  is  finely  situated 
on  a  bay  in  the  River  Paraguay,  at  the  point  where  it 


PARAGUAY  253 

ceases  to  be  navigable  for  ocean  steamers.  It  is  laid 
out  in  the  familiar  rectangular  style,  owing  its  present 
form  to  the  Dictator  Francia.  The  Plaza  del  Mercado 
and  the  Plaza  San  Francisco  are  the  principal  open 
places.  The  most  noteworthy  building  in  Asuncion 
is  the  vast  unfinished  palace  of  the  younger  Lopez, 
which  is  now  used  as  a  police-station.  The  Biblioteca 
Nacionai  has  a  valuable  collection  of  historical  docu- 
ments referring  to  Spanish  times.  The  Museo  de 
Bellas  Artes  has  several  reputed  old  masters.  Asun- 
cion has  been  the  seat  of  a  Bishop  since  1547.  The 
Cathedral  was  built  by  the  elder  Lopez  in  1845.  The 
Government  Palace  is  a  handsome  building  with  a 
square  tower.  Although  most  of  the  houses  are  one- 
storied,  Asuncion  is  clean  and  well  built,  and  it  is 
well  paved  and  lighted  with  electric  light.  The  trams 
are  drawn  by  mules.  Of  late  the  trade  of  Asuncion 
has  shown  signs  of  expanding,  and  if  Paraguay  can 
get  rid  of  the  plague  of  revolutions  the  improvement 
will  doubtless  continue. 

San  Bernardino  is  within  easy  reach  of  the  capital  ; 
the  station  for  it  is  Aregua.  It  is  a  favourite  holiday 
resort  for  people  from  Buenos  Aires.  Here  is  the 
beautiful  Lake  Ipacaray,  and  the  temperate  warmth 
of  the  climate  attracts  people  who  suffer  from  lung 
diseases.  Here  is  a  German  colony. 

The  other  towns  in  the  Republic  are  not  of  much 
importance.  The  second  town  is  Villa  Rica,  with 
28,755  inhabitants,  which  lies  70  miles  south-east  of 
the  capital,  and  is  connected  with  it  by  rail.  It  is  a 
centre  of  the  yerba  mate  trade.  Villa  Concepcion, 
with  15,683  inhabitants,  is  becoming  a  place  of  some 
importance.  It  also  has  a  busy  trade  in  the  national 
beverage. 

The    Iguazu    Falls   are   noticed    in    the   Argentine 


254       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

section,  but  even  more  wonderful  than  these  are  the 
Guayra  Falls,  which  have  seldom  been  visited  by  a 
white  man.  Their  position,  at  the  point  where  the 
River  Paraguay  leaves  the  Brazilian  State  of  Matto 
Grosso  and  enters  the  Republic  of  Paraguay,  is  most 
inaccessible  ;  the  way  lies  through  long  stretches  of 
prairies  and  then  through  almost  impenetrable  forests, 
which  are  practically  uninhabited.1  The  insect  pests 
are  very  numerous.  The  Falls  are  wider  and  deeper 
than  those  of  Niagara,  but  as  the  fall  is  not  so  abrupt, 
the  appearance  is  less  imposing.  A  few  years  ago 
Mr.  Claude  Russell  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  a 
visit  to  these  Falls  in  Blackwood's  Magazine. 

Literature  about  Paraguay  is  scanty  ;  there  is  great  need  of 
an  up-to-date  topographical  work  on  the  country.  Mr.  W. 
Barbrooke  Grubb  has  written  valuable  works  on  the  Chaco, 
but  he  deals  more  with  the  Indians  than  the  physical  features. 
The  history  of  Paraguay  has  been  adequately  treated.  Mr. 
Cunninghame-Graham  has  written  a  brilliant  study  upon  the 
Jesuit  Missions.  The  following  list  of  works  may  be  found 
useful  : — 

Burton,  Sir   R    F.    Letters  from    the  Battlefields  of  Paraguay. 

London,  1870. 
Bourgade,  La   Dardye.     Paraguay  (tr.    by   E.   G.  Ravenstein). 

London,  1892. 

Van  Bruyssel,  E.     La  Republique  de  Paraguay.     Brussels,  1893. 
Cunninghame-Graham,  R.  B.     A   Vanished  Arcadia.     London, 

1901. 

Macdonald,  A.  K.     Picturesque  Paraguay.     London,  1911. 
Grubb,  W.  B.     An  Unknown  People.     London,  1911. 


1  "  If  there  is  charm  in  the  unknown,  there  is  at  least  as  great 
a  charm  in  the  forgotten,  and  the  Salto  de  Guayra  is  one  of  the 
most  forgotten  corners  of  the  earth." — A  Vanished  Arcadia,  p.  78 


COLOMBIA 


E  C    U   A    D    0    R^J 


PERU 

Railways  shown  thus 

200  MILES 


•ij'j£i££i£:=;£-'::;^::i;::!i:::':;-i\ 

^"GLOGRAPHIA" ' LTD  33 STRAND. LONDON. WC 


PERU 

PERU  is  a  large  Republic,  comprising  territory  of 
great  variety,  which  is  uncertain  in  extent  owing 
to  boundary  disputes.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
680,026  square  miles,  and  the  population  at  3,530,000. 
It  is  divided  into  three  natural  regions — the  coast 
zone,  the  Andes,  and  the  Montana  or  forest  region. 
The  coast  zone  is  about  1,400  miles  long  and  seldom 
as  much  as  100  miles  broad  ;  it  is  the  only  part  that 
has  much  population.  Here  there  is  scarcely  any 
rainfall,  although  the  climate  is  moist  and  warm.  The 
cool  Humboldt  current  is  lower  in  temperature  than 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  thus  prevents  evaporation. 
Fortunately,  however,  there  are  plenty  of  small  rivers, 
and  the  land,  when  irrigated,  is  extremely  fertile.  It 
has,  in  fact,  an  entirely  separate  system  of  hydro- 
graphy, and  its  puny  streams  are  in  strong  contrast 
to  the  giant  affluents  of  the  Amazon  which  water  the 
Montana.  The  principal  of  these  little  rivers  are  the 
Tumbez,  Chira,  Santa,  Barranca,  Rimac,  Ocona, 
Camana  and  Tambo.  They  are  perennial,  having 
an  everlasting  reservoir  in  the  snows  of  the  Andes. 
"  The  temperature  *  of  the  coast  region  is  never 
oppressively  hot.  .  .  .  The  mean  temperatures  are 
as  follows  :  Piura,  in  the  north,  77°  Fahr. ;  Lima,  in 
the  centre,  66°  Fahr. ;  Moquegua,  in  the  south,  63° 
Fahr.  The  maximum  temperature  in  Lima  in  the 

1  Enock.    Peru,  p.  223. 

s  '57 


258       A    GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

summer  is  78°  Fahr.,  and  the  minimum  in  the  winter 
59°  Fahr."  As  will  be  seen,  when  the  products  of 
Peru  are  described,  this  is  a  very  rich  agricultural 
district.  The  region  of  the  Andes  presents  aspects 
already  familiar  to  the  traveller,  who  will  at  least 
have  passed  over  the  range  by  the  Buenos  Aires  and 
Pacific  Railway,  and  may  also  have  traversed  Bolivia. 
Here  will  be  found  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  highest  town 
in  the  world,  at  an  elevation  of  14,380  feet,  and  almost 
the  sole  wealth  is  to  be  found  in  the  mines,  although 
the  Indians  cultivate  their  little  patches  of  land,  upon 
which  they  rely  chiefly  for  subsistence.  Though  in- 
hospitable, these  grim  mountains  have  more  popula- 
tion than  might  be  supposed  ;  they  are  inhabited  by 
the  same  people  who  lived  there  during  the  Inca 
Empire — the  Quechuas  and  the  Aymaras.  They  are 
known  as  Cholos,  and  are  the  only  real  workers  in 
Peru,  being  excellent  miners  as  well  as  agriculturists. 
At  moderate  elevations  a  great  number  of  sheep,  yield- 
ing excellent  wool,  are  reared,  but  above  10,000  feet 
the  mines  are  practically  the  only  industry.  Were  it 
not  for  the  useful  llama  there  would  be  hardly  any 
means  of  transport. 

The  Montana  is  a  region  into  which  the  Spanish 
Peruvian  seldom  penetrates  ;  it  has  been  fruitful  in 
boundary  disputes,  for,  although  none  of  the  con- 
tending nations  have  energy  to  develop  this  rich  land 
or  power  to  keep  order  in  it,  they  will  not  voluntarily 
yield  a  square  league  of  the  forests  which  they  have 
never  seen.  The  district  has  been  well  described  by 
Mr.  Enock.  Unless  the  traveller  is  accustomed  to 
roughing  it,  he  is  strongly  advised  not  to  attempt 
an  expedition  in  this  territory,  for  the  hardships  are 
extreme  and  much  of  the  country  is  very  unhealthy. 
A  few  years  ago  a  young  Englishman,  who  marched 
from  one  of  the  termini  of  navigation  to  Pacasmayo 


PERU  259 

on  the  coast,  died  as  the  effect  of  privations  before 
reaching  Panama.  A  great  variety  of  uncivilized 
Indians  inhabit  the  forests  ;  much  interesting  infor- 
mation may  be  found  in  papers  read  before  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society.  Something  will  be  said  about 
the  treatment  meted  out  to  these  unfortunate  people 
when  the  rubber  industry  is  discussed.  The  rivers 
are  the  most  remarkable  physical  feature.  The 
Yapura,  the  northernmost,  may  be  called  the  boundary 
between  Peru  and  Ecuador,  and  it  flows  into  the 
Amazon  far  away  in  Brazil.  The  ill-famed  Putumayo 
flows  through  an  imperfectly  explored  territory,  and 
it  is  navigable  by  steamboats  for  285  miles.  The  vast 
Maranon,  which  is  really  the  Amazon,  is  confined  to 
Peru  throughout  its  whole  course,  and  it  receives  a 
number  of  enormous  affluents.  On  the  north  may 
be  mentioned  the  Morona,  the  Partaza,  the  Tigre,  and 
the  Napo.  The  two  principal  rivers  which  it  receives 
from  the  south  are  the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali. 
On  the  Maranon  is  the  very  considerable  port  of 
Iquitos.  The  Javari  flows  along  the  Brazilian  border 
and  with  the  Maranon  joins  the  Amazon  at  the 
extreme  corner  of  Peru.  The  south-eastern  border 
of  Peru  is  formed  by  the  vast  Madera,  whose  principal 
affluent  is  the  Madre  de  Dios.  The  Purus  and  other 
great  rivers  flow  through  the  eastern  Montana.  To 
all  intents  and  purposes,  this  country  is  only  accessible 
from  the  Atlantic.  If  a  Peruvian  of  Lima  has  busi- 
ness in  Iquitos,  he  goes  by  Panama.  Of  the  Montana 
Mr.  Enock  says  :  "  It  consists  of  (a)  the  lower  slopes, 
foothills,  and  valleys  of  the  base  of  the  Andes,  covered 
with  timber  and  intersected  by  streams  whose  waters, 
in  many  cases,  literally  '  wander  o'er  sands  of  gold  '  ; 
(6)  enormous  open  valleys  and  plains,  free  of  timber 
and  covered  with  grass,  such  as  Sacramento  Pampa ; 
and  (c)  regions  of  virgin  forests,  in  places  almost 


260       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

impenetrable  and  unexplored.  This  latter  region  is 
traversed  by  the  numerous  rivers  which  are  elsewhere 
described,  and  it  is  upon  the  margins  of  these  that 
the  indiarubber  grounds  are  encountered." 

The  lakes  of  Peru  are  important.  Lake  Titicaca  is 
by  far  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  South 
America,  having  an  area  of  3,300  square  miles.  It 
has  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet  and  in  places  a  depth 
of  700  feet.  As  this  huge  sheet  of  water  has  appa- 
rently a  very  small  outlet,  much  of  the  excess  is 
probably  carried  away  by  evaporation.  In  the  Junin 
District  is  Lake  Chinchaycocha  at  an  equal  height, 
and  the  third  in  size  is  Parinacocha  ;  there  are  many 
small  lakes  among  the  mountains. 

It  is  said  that  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards 
the  Inca  Empire  had  a  population  of  twelve  millions, 
and  of  these  a  large  proportion  inhabited  Peru.  The 
Quichuas  formed  the  most  important  race  of  Indians, 
who  had  subdued  the  more  ancient  Aymara  people. 
They  are  still  the  backbone  of  the  country,  as  has 
already  been  noted,  and  are  known  as  the  Cholo 
Indians.  The  Indians  of  the  Montana  are  uncivilized 
and  consist  of  many  tribes,  with  little  cohesion  ;  they 
number  several  hundred  thousands.  Among  them 
may  be  numbered  the  following :  the  Aguarunas,  who 
live  around  the  Maranon.  They  are  a  warlike  tribe 
and  use  the  blow-pipe.  The  Amahuachus,  about  the 
Ucayali  River,  are  similar.  The  Conibos,  who  live 
higher  up  the  same  river,  are  more  friendly  to  the 
whites.  The  Campas  inhabit  a  wide  tract  by  the 
Ucayali  and  Urubamba  Rivers,  and  are  good  culti- 
vators and  skilled  watermen.  They  are  not  unfriendly, 
although  some  of  their  sub-tribes  are  said  to  practise 
cannibalism.  The  Huachipairis,  who  live  by  the 
Madre  de  Dios,  are  naked,  painted  savages,  and 
practise  polygamy  ;  they  are  unfriendly.  The  Machi- 


PERU  261 

gangas,  who  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Urubamba 
and  Pachitea  Rivers,  are  somewhat  more  civilized. 
The  Nahumedes,  who  are  scanty  in  number,  have  this 
point  of  interest  that  they  are  believed  to  have  given 
the  name  to  the  River  Amazon,  which  probably  arose 
through  a  mistake.  These  savages  wear  a  chemise 
(cushma),  and  when  they  attacked  Orellana  while  he 
explored  the  great  river,  it  is  supposed  that  he  mistook 
them  for  women  or  Amazons.  The  Orejones  live 
about  the  Napo.  The  cruel  treatment  which  they 
have  received  will,  unless  checked,  cause  them  to 
become  extinct. 

The  western  mountains  of  the  Andes  are  formed  of 
Mesozoic  beds,  and  the  smaller  hills  near  the  coast 
are  composed  of  granite  and  various  crystalline  rocks, 
interspersed  with  limestone  and  sandstone.  The 
eastern  Cordillera  are  of  Palaeozoic  rock. 

The  flora  is  extremely  varied.  Every  kind  of 
tropical  vegetation  flourishes  in  the  Montana,  and 
here  the  sugar-cane  and  similar  crops  are  cultivated, 
as  on  the  irrigated  coast  zone.  The  forest  trees  are 
numerous,  among  which  one  of  the  most  valuable  is 
the  Hevea  rubber-tree,  and  palms  of  all  kinds  are 
numerous.  Various  chinchona-trees  grow  abundantly. 
The  flora  of  the  Montana  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
Brazil.  Peru  is  the  home  of  the  potato.  The  species 
vary  with  the  elevation,  but  the  Peruvian  Andes  are 
far  more  prolific  of  vegetation  than  the  Chilian  and 
Argentine,  and  there  is  fine  grazing  land  at  immense 
heights.  If  Peru  had  adequate  communications,  it 
is  probable  that  few  countries  in  the  world  would 
yield  more  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  rubber. 

By  far  the  most  valuable  of  the  Peruvian  animals 
is  that  which  consists  of  four  branches — the  llama, 
the  vicuna,  the  alpaca  and  the  guanaco.  The  llama 
carries  burdens  of  75  Ib.  over  the  mountain  roads 


262       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

and  affords  the  only  means  of  transport  in  many 
districts,  and  both  it  and  the  vicuna  and  alpaca  are 
valuable  for  their  wool.  The  characteristic  South 
American  animals  are  found  in  Peru.  The  great 
condor  is  not  uncommon,  and  there  are  immense 
varieties  of  sea-fowl. 

COMMERCE,  PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

In  1911  the  imports  were         £6,371,388 

„     exports      „  7,422,027 

The  principal  countries  in  the  import  trade  were  : — 

The  United  Kingdom £1,719,831 

The  United  States          1,165,602 

Germany 946,206 

Belgium ...  333>982 

France      289,529 

Italy          i99>45° 

In  the  export  trade  the  following  countries  have  the 
chief  share  : — 

The  United  Kingdom ...  £2,396,640 

The  United  States          2,037,599 

Chile          1,274,032 

Germany  ...                    562,297 

France      380,478 

Belgium 98,928 

The  exports  are   of    a   varied   character,  consisting 
of:— 

Minerals £1,987,762 

Sugar         ...  1,415,586 

Cotton       999,463 

Rubber      522,044 

Wool                                393,94° 

Petroleum            388,077 

Guano 270,593 


PERU  263 

Hats  ...                                                       ...  £172,093 

Hides  and  skins      104,808 

Rice 80,151 

Cocaine        T5>29* 

Coca 53,002 

Coffee           49,408 

Peru  has  always  been  renowned  for  fabulous 
mineral  wealth.  Enormous  quantities  of  gold  were 
obtained  by  the  Incas  and  also  in  Spanish  times,  but 
the  mining  was  conducted  in  unskilful  fashion,  and 
the  decline  in  production  was  not  due  to  any  exhaus- 
tion of  the  mines,  but  to  the  political  troubles  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
centuries.  There  is  no  doubt  that  under  favourable 
circumstances  Peru  might  produce  as  much  gold  and 
silver  as  ever,  but  the  difficulties  of  transport  are  so 
great  that  it  is  impossible  to  work  many  rich  lodes 
profitably.  When  the  Republic  attained  to  a  some- 
what more  settled  condition,  more  attention  was  paid 
to  its  underground  wealth,  and  in  1876  a  School  of 
Mines  was  founded  at  Lima,  and  the  mining  laws 
have  been  improved.  Many  of  the  rivers  of  the 
Montana  are  auriferous,  notably  the  Maranon,  Sandia, 
Urubamba  and  others,  and  the  Indians  have  long  had 
a  peculiar  practice  of  paving  the  bed  of  a  river  with 
flat  stones,  and  when  the  river  is  in  flood  the  nuggets 
brought  down  the  stream  are  caught  in  the  places 
between  the  stones.  The  Indians  say,  "We  sow  stones 
and  reap  gold."  A  few  gold-mines  are  being  energetic- 
ally worked  in  Peru,  notably  the  American  mine  of 
Santo  Domingo  near  Cuzco,  but  the  total  production 
is  comparatively  small — not  more  than  .£200,000  per 
annum.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  country  the  total 
amount  of  silver  mined  has  been  estimated  at 
.£140,000,000,  and  to-day  the  annual  production  is 
usually  little  short  of  a  million  sterling.  The  prin- 


264       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

cipal  silver-bearing  regions  are  :  Salpo,  Hualgayoc, 
Huari,  Huallanca,  Huayalas,  Huaraz,  Recuay,  Caja- 
tambo,  Yauli,  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Morococha,  Casapalca, 
Huarochiri,  Huancavelica,  Quespisisa,  Castrovirrena, 
Lucanas,  Lampa,  Caylloma  and  Puno.  In  Spanish 
times  quicksilver  was  produced  in  great  quantities, 
to  the  amount  of  hundreds  of  tons  a  year,  from  the 
Huancavelica  mines,  but  now  the  production  is  very 
small.  Copper  is  a  very  important  product.  Cerro 
de  Pasco  is  the  chief  copper  district^  but  the  metal 
occurs  abundantly  in  many  lofty  regions  of  the  Andes 
— in  Yauli,  Morococha,  Huayllay,  Chimbote,  Caja- 
marca,  Huaycayo,  Huaraz,  Huallanca,  Huancavelica, 
lea,  Arequipa,  Andahuaylas  and  Cuzco.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  it  is  frequently  found  in  conjunction  with 
silver.  Coal  is  promising,  and  there  are  excellent 
beds  along  the  coast  of  northern  Chile ;  it  is  also 
found  in  the  Andes.  Very  valuable  petroleum  wells 
have  been  discovered  at  Talara  and  Zorritos  in  the 
Department  of  Piura.  Mining  labour  is  rather  scarce 
in  Peru,  for  it  is  carried  on  by  Cholo  Indians  who 
are  also  small  farmers,  and  they  are  in  the  habit  of 
leaving  their  work  at  harvest-time  and  repairing  to 
their  homes  to  reap  their  crops,  but  the  quality  of 
their  work  is  satisfactory.  An  English  mining  super- 
intendent states  that  they  give  very  little  trouble  and 
are  excellent  workmen,  a  small  minority  of  them  being 
as  good  as  English  miners,  though  of  course  the 
majority  are  far  weaker.  The  average  wage  is  about 
35.  a  day,  but  the  most  important  mining  work  is  done 
at  special  contract  rates.  This  gentleman  added  that 
there  is  great  need  of  capital  and  brains  ;  with  them 
there  would  be  splendid  prospects  for  mining  in  Peru. 
A  considerable  amount  of  gold,  silver  and  copper  is 
exported  in  ore. 

Rubber  is  one  of  Peru's  chief  industries.     The  better 


PERU  265 

kind  is  yielded  by  the  hevea  trees,  the  inferior  by  the 
caucho  ;  the  latter  kind  is  obtained  by  the  simple 
process  of  cutting  down  the  tree  and  letting  the  sap 
run  out  ;  thus  resources  have  been  recklessly  wasted. 
Iquitos,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Amazon,  is  the  great 
rubber  port  and  the  distributing  centre  into  which  the 
wealth  of  the  Department  of  Loreto  is  poured.  This 
industry  is  a  source  of  great  profit  to  Peru,  and  it  could 
be  wished  that  the  methods  pursued  were  in  harmony 
with  civilization  and  humanity,  but  the  barbarities 
with  which  Peru  is  associated  in  that  connexion  have 
rarely  been  paralleled  in  the  world's  history  of 
atrocities.  It  has  long  been  known  by  all  who  are 
acquainted  with  South  America  that  rubber-gathering 
is  almost  everywhere  attended  with  great  cruelty.  In 
1909  Mr.  Hardenburg  set  to  work  to  bring  the 
abominations  of  the  Putumayo  to  light,  and  with  the 
help  of  Truth,  though  constantly  hindered  by  the  guilty 
parties,  he  succeeded,  for  a  brief  space,  in  arousing  the 
public  conscience,  which,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  now 
Comfortably  asleep  once  more.  It  should  be  added 
that  the  company  principally  concerned  was  an 
English  one.  Mr.  Enock  remarks  :  "The  miserable 
condition  of  native  labour  in  Latin  America  ought  to 
be  brought  home  to  the  directors  ;md  shareholders  of 
British  and  other  foreign  companies.  There  are 
hundreds  of  rubber,  mining,  oil,  plantation,  railway 
and  other  companies  with  scores  of  noblemen — lords, 
dukes,  baronets — as  well  as  doctors  of  science,  bankers 
and  business  men,  and  even  ministers  of  religion, 
distributed  among  their  boards  of  directors.  What 
knowledge  have  these  gentlemen  of  the  conditions  of 
the  poor  native  labourers  under  their  control  ?  There 
is  a  grave  responsibility,  which  has  been  very  easily 
carried,  about  this  system  of  absentee  capitalism." 
So  revolting  were  the  atrocities  that  it  was  considered 


266       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

that  "  something  ought  to  be  done." x  Sir  Roger 
Casement  was  directed  by  the  Foreign  Office  to  make 
an  investigation.  He  completed  his  Report  in  1911, 
but  our  Foreign  Office  did  riot  issue  it  for  a  year, 
hoping  that  the  Peruvian  Government  might  take 
some  remedial  measures.  This  hope  was  disappointed. 
As  the  Annual  Register  for  1912  said:  "  The  facts 
were  persistently  denied  by  the  Peruvian  Government 
until  denial  became  impossible."  Sir  Roger  Casement 
stated  that  "  the  condition  of  things  fully  warrants 
the  worst  charges  brought  against  the  agents  of 
the  Peruvian  Amazon  Company  and  its  methods 
on  the  Putumayo."  These  horrors  are  minutely  de- 
scribed in  the  two  books,  and  consist  chiefly  of  most 
aggravated  and  multitudinous  cases  of  murder  and 
torture,  into  which  it  would  serve  no  purpose  to  go 
here.  But  it  would  be  interesting  to  compare  the 
treatment  of  Indians  under  Republican  Peru  with 
that  under  Royalist  Spain.  North  American  writers 
and  their  English  imitators  have  exhausted  their 
vocabulary  in  describing  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  have  asserted  in  grandiloquent  terms  that  the 
night  of  darkness  and  cruelty  was  rolled  away  when 
the  Republics  threw  off  Spanish  control.  This  was 
obviously  absurd,  as  the  slightest  knowledge  of 
history  would  show,  but  no  one  concerns  themselves 
about  South  American  Indians,  and  so  possibly 
these  misrepresentations  may  have  hitherto  gained 
currency.  The  Royalist  Government  invariably  pro- 
tected the  Indians  against  commercial  oppressors 
and  established  countless  missions  among  them. 
When  the  Republican  Governments  have  not  actively 
engaged  in  the  extermination  of  the  Indians,  they 

1  Full  accounts  of  this  matter  are  given  in  The  Putumayo :  the 
Devil's  Paradise  (1912),  by  W.  E.  Hardenburg,  and  The  Lords  of 
the  Devil's  Paradise  (1913),  by  G.  S.  Paternoster. 


PERU  267 

have  allowed  exploiters  a  free  hand,  and  this  last  is 
by  far  the  crueller  course  of  the  two.  It  will,  in 
the  future,  require  some  effrontery  to  complain  of 
the  Spanish  treatment  of  the  Indians  without  con- 
trasting it  with  present-day  treatment.  There  is 
apparently  no  hope  of  remedying  the  evils,  which 
will  doubtless  continue  until  either  the  Indians  or 
the  rubber-trees  are  totally  destroyed — and  the 
former  contingency  is  likely  to  take  place  first. 

An  important  product  of  the  Montana  is  the 
coca  shrub,  which  flourishes  on  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Cordillera  at  elevations  between  2,000  and 
5,000  feet.  From  this  the  drug  named  cocaine  is 
manufactured.  It  is  largely  produced  in  the  Depart- 
ments of  Cuzco,  Huanuco  and  Junin.  The  Indians 
are  too  fond  of  chewing  the  leaves ;  used  in 
moderation  it  is  helpful  against  fatigue,  but  it  is 
greatly  abused  'and  thus  becomes  a  very  deleterious 
drug  ;  it  would  be  well  if  the  harmless  yerba  mate 
could  be  introduced  as  a  substitute.  Good  cocoa  is 
grown,  and  the  industry  is  promising.  Peruvian 
coffee  is  of  the  highest  quality,  but  at  present  the 
heavy  cost  of  transport  paralyses  the  industry. 

I  Peru  is  making  steady  progress  in  the  raising  of 
agricultural  and  pastoral  products.  Sugar,  which  is 
cultivated  on  the  coast,  chiefly  to  the  north  of 
Callao,  is  the  largest  crop  and  is  of  excellent  quality. 
The  British  Sugar  Company  has  very  large  estates  at 
Cafiete,  and  the  output  of  the  whole  country  is  about 
200,000  tons  yearly.  Cotton,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
Peruvian  crops,  is  dependent  on  irrigation  and  is 
grown  near  the  coast,  chiefly  in  the  Departments  of 
Piura,  lea  and  Lima.  There  are  three  varieties  of 
Peruvian  cotton — the  rough,  which  is  the  most 
valuable,  and  comes  from  Piura  ;  the  semi-rough, 
somewhat  cheaper,  which  comes  from  Pisco ;  the 


268       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

third,  which  is  least  valuable,  comes  from  the  coast 
between  Huacho  and  Pisco  ;  it  supplies  the  demands 
of  the  mills  of  Lima  and  Arequipa.  The  rough  and 
the  semi-rough  are  in  great  request  for  mixing  with 
wool  in  making  underclothing,  and  are  exported  to 
Liverpool.  In  the  fifth  or  sixth  year  the  Peruvian 
cotton  plant  yields  about  half  a  ton  to  the  acre. 
Besides  the  large  export,  some  2,500  tons  of  cotton 
are  consumed  yearly  by  the  Peruvian  mills.  Rice  is  a 
considerable  crop,  and  is  grown  extensively  in  the 
Departments  of  Lambayeque  and  Libertad.  It  and 
maize  are  the  staple  food  of  the  people ;  from  the 
latter  grain  the  national  beverage  of  chica  is  made. 
Along  the  southern  coasts  grapes  are  largely  grown, 
especially  in  the  Department  of  lea.  Here  wine  is 
manufactured,  and  the  Peruvian  red  and  white  wines 
are  extremely  good.  The  Pisco  brandy  is  well  known. 
The  wool  trade  has  made  much  progress  in  Peru  of 
late  years.  In  this  the -firm  of  Duncan  Fox  has 
shown  great  enterprise,  having 'established  a  breeding 
farm  near  Cerro  de  Pascq  and  imported  rams  from 
Chile.  The  firm  supplies  the  woollen  factories  of 
Lima  with  a  large  quantity  of  greasy  wool.  Mollendo, 
however,  is  the  principal  wool  port  of  Peru,  being  the 
depot  for  the  produce  of  the  uplands.  The  alpacas 
and  vicunas  are  in  great  esteem.  The  only  other 
Peruvian  product  which  requires  notice  is  one  for 
which,  half  a  century  ago,  Peru  was  extremely  well 
known,  namely  guano.  The  trade  began  in  1840  and 
the  exports  soon  rose  to  200,000  tons.  Innumerable 
web-footed  sea-fowl  haunt  the  coasts  of  Peru,  and 
particularly  the  Chincha  Islands.  The  deposits  of 
phosphates  made  by  these  birds  are  extremely  valuable 
for  manure,  but  the  birds  have  not  been  treated  with 
proper  care,  and  the  yield  of  this  valuable  product  has 
been  much  reduced. 


PERU  269 

The  manufactures  of  Peru  are  more  developed  than 
those  of  any  South  American  country  except  Brazil. 
There  are  five  flourishing  cotton-mills  in  Lima,  and 
lea  and  Arequipa  have  one  each.  The  chief  factory 
of  Lima  has  400  looms,  and  350  hands  are  em- 
ployed at  about  35.  a  day.  It  is  worked  by 
petroleum.  There  are  several  important  woollen- 
mills  at  Lima,  Cuzco  and  Arequipa.  The  Santa 
Rosa  Company  has  a  large  flour-mill  at  Callao. 
There  are  over  twenty  factories  for  the  manufacture  of 
cocaine.  Beer  is  brewed  extensively  at  Lima  and 
other  places,  and  there  are  several  factories  for  manu- 
facturing paper,  matches,  cigarettes,  and  biscuits. 
Paita  is  renowned  for  the  manufacture  of  beautiful 
hats,  and  there  is  a  large  export  trade. 

The  railways  of  Peru  resemble  those  of  Chile  ; 
they  are  short  and  run  into  the  mountains  at  right 
angles  to  the  coast.  The  only  railway  which  can  be 
called  a  through  connexion  is  that  from  Mollendo  to 
Puno,  which  is  about  312  miles  long  and  gives  access 
to  Bolivia.  The  only  other  one  of  much  importance 
is  that  from  Callao,  through  Lima  and  Oroya,  to  Cerro 
de  Pasco.  There  are  numerous  short  lines,  but  not 
nearly  enough  for  the  development  of  the  country. 
A  very  useful  product  is  the  contemplated  line  from 
Paita  on  the  coast  to  Limon,  a  port  on  the  Maranon. 
This  is  not  likely  to  be  built  in  the  near  future,  but  it 
would  supply  a  great  want,  for  eastern  and  western 
Peru  are  now  as  inaccessible  to  each  other  by  land  as 
Egypt  and  South  Africa  are.  Some  account  is  given 
of  Peruvian  railways  under  the  headings  of  the  towns. 

MONEY  AND  FINANCE 

Peru  was  terribly  exhausted  by  the  war  of  1879-83 
and  has  not  yet  thoroughly  recovered  from  it,  although 


270       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 


yearly  the  outlook  becomes  more  favourable.  In 
1897  a  g°ld  coinage  was  established,  and  in  1901 
the  silver  Peruvian  sol  was  made  legal  tender  up  to  a 
sum  of  ten  sols  only.  The  following  statement 
explains  the  Peruvian  monetary  system  :— 

Peru  is  unique  in  South  America  in  having  stable  money  with 
clean  gold  and  silver  coinage.  The  Peruvian  pound  (written 
"  Lp"  or  "  £")  is  maintained  at  par  with  the  British  sovereign, 
which  circulates  with  it  as  legal  tender.  The  coins  are  — 


EQUIVALENT 

METAL 

DENOMINATION 

Peruvian                   British 

1 

U.S.A.  and 
Canada 

Gold  ... 

Pound 

10 

SOls                          2OS. 

$4.87 

Half  pound 

S 

IOS. 

2-43 

Silver... 

Sol 

IOO 

centavos            2S. 

485 

Half  sol 

So 

IS. 

.24 

Fifth  sol 

20 

5d. 

.10 

Tenth  sol                  10 

2*d. 

•05 

Twentieth  sol            5 

Ijd. 

.025 

Copper 

Centavo  grande  i       2 

id. 

.01 

Centavo  chico            i 

:  i  farthing 

.005 

There  is  no  paper  money  in  Peru. 

The  estimated    revenue    for  1913  was  £3,209,237 
„  expenditure          „         £2,879,924 

The  customs  form  the  largest  item  in  the  revenue, 
usually  amounting  to  over  -£1,200,000.  About  a 
million  sterling  is  contributed  by  the  National  Tax 
Collecting  Company,  which  collects,  on  commission, 
a  large  number  of  internal  taxes.  Among  them  the 
imports  on  spirits  and  tobacco  are  the  most  lucrative. 
The  customs  duties  are  high,  with  the  object  of 
protecting  home  manufactures,  and  living  is  expensive, 
although  less  so  than  in  many  South  American 
countries.  The  external  debt  of  Peru  amounts  to 


PERU  271 

.£5,368,788,  and  the  internal  debt  is  about  three 
millions  sterling.  Peru  has,  ever  since  it  became  a 
Republic,  been  in  a  state  of  great  financial  embarrass- 
ment, and  there  is  often  a  difficulty  in  paying  its 
numerous  public  functionaries.  'It  is  said  that  the 
Government  owes  tradesmen  and  merchants  in  Lima 
about  £2,500,000. 

THE  CONSTITUTION 

The  constitution  of  Peru  dates  from  1830.  The 
executive  power  belongs  to  the  President,  who  is 
elected  for  four  years.  There  are  two  Vice-Presidents. 
The  President  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  six  Ministers. 
The  legislative  power  is  administered  by  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate  repre- 
sents the  Departments  and  has  52  members  ;  the  House 
of  Representatives  has  116  members. 

The  Republic,  it  may  be  mentioned,  is  divided  into 
18  Departments  and  2  Provkices  (Callao  and  Moque- 
gua).  The  Departments  are  subdivided  into  Provinces, 
which  number  98  in  all,  and  these  again  are  sub- 
divided into  Districts,  numbering  80 1.  Puno  is  the 
most  populous  of  the  Departments,  but,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  the  population  figures  are  not  to  be 
trusted,  and  there  has  been  no  official  census  since 
1876.  The  figures  given  for  the  total  population  of 
Peru  are  impossibly  high.  Peru  is  the  only  country 
in  South  America  which  does  not  tolerate  religions 
outside  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

HISTORY 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the  early  history  of 
Peru,  which  forms  the  subject  of  Prescott's  well-known 
work.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  remind  readers  that 
the  famous  Inca  race  at  some  unknown  date  (probably 


272       A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

not  very  remote)  conquered  a  pre-Incan  race  of  which 
almost    nothing   is   known    and    founded   a   paternal 
and  splendid  monarchy  or  empire.     This  was  rudely 
disturbed  by  the  Spaniards  under  the  ruthless  Pizarro. 
Although   the    Incas  were   skilful   builders  and  road- 
makers,  workers  in   metal,  weavers,  and  possessed  of 
some  skill  in  the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  geography, 
they  had  little  aptitude  for  the  art  of  war,  seeing  that 
their  conquests  had   been  made  over  naked  savages 
who  could    not    stand    against   their  civilization,  and 
the    Peruvians   therefore  were  no  match   against  the 
Spaniards.       In     1532    Atahualpa    was    treacherously 
seized  and  soon  afterwards  put  to  death.     The  con- 
querors engaged  in  constant  quarrels  over  their  spoils 
and    Pizarro    was   murdered    in    1541.     The    King   of 
Spain  determined    to    end  the  anarchy,  and  in   1546 
the    Viceroy   Gasca   restored    order    and    established 
settled  government.   After  his  retirement  there  followed 
a  period  of  disturbance,  but  in  1555  the  wise  Marquis 
of  Canete  arrived  and  took  measures  to  repress  the 
idle   adventurers.     The  Viceroys  varied  in  character, 
and  their  treatment  of  the  Indians  was,  on  the  whole, 
oppressive,  for  the  wonderful  mines  were  now  being 
worked,   and   the    Indians,   forced    to    unaccustomed 
toil,    perished    in   great    numbers.     The    chief   events 
of    the    time,    however,    were    connected    with    the 
English  marauders,  who  constantly  plundered  Spanish 
treasure-ships.      But  the   history  of  the   times  is  not 
altogether    written    in    blood.     In    1567    the    Jesuits 
arrived    and    introduced    printing    and    learning.     A 
University  had   already  been   founded   at    Lima,  but 
unfortunately    the     Spaniards     introduced     a     home 
institution    that    could    well    have    been    spared — the 
Inquisition.     In  Peru  the  Spanish  dominion  was  prob- 
ably more  severe  than  in  any  other   part   of   South 
America,  but  even  here  much  good  was  done.   Civiliza- 


PERU  273 

tion,  literature,  learning  and  religion  were  brought 
from  the  Old  World,  and  every  description  of  fruit, 
grain  and  cattle  was  transplanted  from  Europe  and 
began  to  flourish.  On  the  other  hand,  Europe  received 
from  Peru  new  vegetable  products  in  potatoes,  maize, 
chocolate,  tobacco  and  quinine.  Henceforward  Peru 
occupies  an  extremely  important  place  in  Spanish 
colonial  history  on  purely  commercial  grounds.  The 
colonies  were  allowed  to  trade  with  the  mother 
country  only,  and  not  directly,  but  through  Panama. 
Thus  Lima  was  the  depot  for  the  whole  of  South 
America ;  it  was  necessary  to  land  goods  destined 
for  Buenos  Aires  at  Lima  and  send  them  through 
Bolivia  into  Argentina.  Lima  became  rich  and 
prosperous  and  was  the  most  refined  and  learned  of 
the  cities  of  South  America.  In  1746  its  prosperity 
was  checked  by  a  terrible  earthquake.  In  1767  Peru 
sustained  a  great  loss,  moral  and  material,  by  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  discontent  became  rife, 
of  which  one  symptom  in  1780  was  the  revolt  of 
Tupac  Amaru,  a  descendant  of  the  Inca  Emperors. 
The  authorities  were  alarmed  and,  as  elsewhere  in 
South  America,  commenced  a  reforming  policy. 

The  French  Revolution  had  disturbed  the  whole 
world,  and  many  circumstances  had  combined  to 
weaken  Spain  and  give  to  South  America  an  oppor- 
tunity to  become  independent.  Many  of  the  Spanish 
Governors  were  incapable,  but  this  was  not  the  case 
with  Abascal,  the  Viceroy  at  Lima.  When  the  Spanish 
monarchy  fell  before  Napoleon,  the  standard  of  revolt 
arose  in  every  quarter,  but  Abascal  had  collected 
an  efficient  army  and  staunchly  held  his  ground.  In 
1814  and  1815  the  Indian  risings,  which  gravely 
threatened  the  Royalists,  since  the  Indians  formed 
a  great  part  of  their  army,  were  suppressed,  and  the 
position  of  Peru  seemed  secure. 


274       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

But  it  was  impossible  for  Peru  to  maintain  the 
Spanish  connexion  in  view  of  the  rapid  successes 
of  the  revolutionaries  in  all  other  parts  of  South 
America,  and  in  1817  San  Martin,  the  brilliant  and 
patriotic  Argentine  general,  shattered  the  power  of 
the  Royalists  in  Chile  and  afterwards  received  the 
important  naval  aid  of  Lord  Cochrane,  who  in  1820 
assisted  him  to  land  at  the  port  of  Pisco.  The  next 
year  San  Martin,  having  entered  Lima,  proclaimed 
Peru's  independence,  but  shortly  afterwards  retired 
from  the  country  in  favour  of  Bolivar,  the  Liberator, 
The  Royalists  for  a  time  appeared  to  be  recovering 
their  ground  and  even  reoccupied  Lima,  but  in 
August,  1824,  the  victory  of  Bolivar  and  Sucre  at 
Junin  drove  them  back  to  Cuzco,  their  last  stronghold, 
and  in  December  the  famous  field  of  Ayacucho 
witnessed  the  final  ruin  of  Spanish  hopes  in  South 
America. 

The  Spaniards  had  gone,  but  absolutism  did  not 
depart  with  them  ;  in  fact,  the  first  act  of  Bolivar 
(in  1823)  was  to  depose  Riva  Agiiero,  the  first  con- 
stitutional President.  After  a  few  years  as  absolute 
Dictator  the  Liberator  retired  to  Colombia,  and  left 
the  new  Republic  of  Peru  in  a  most  distressful  state. 
It  would  serve  no  purpose  to  follow  the  details  of 
its  troubles.  Darwin,  who  anchored  off  Callao  in 
1835,  complains  that  he  was  able  to  see  very  little 
of  Peru  owing  to  political  disturbances,  and  the 
following  brief  remark  serves  to  sum  up  Peruvian 
history  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  "  No  State  in  South  America,"  he  says, 
"  since  the  declaration  of  independence,  has  suffered 
more  from  anarchy  than  Peru.  At  the  time  of  our 
visit  there  were  four  chiefs  in  arms  contending  for 
supremacy  in  the  government ;  if  one  succeeded  in 
becoming  for  a  time  very  powerful,  the  others  coalesced 


PERU  275 

against  him  ;  but  no  sooner  were  they  victorious  than 
they  were  again  hostile  to  each  other." 

Civil  troubles  were  intensified  by  a  brief  war  with 
Spain  in  1864,  which  was  ended  by  the  good  offices  of 
the   United  States,  but  gradually  the  development  of 
the  guano  and  nitrate  industries,  reinforced  by  President 
Manuel  Pardo's  financial  reforms,  improved  the  position 
of  Peru.     It  was,  however,  nitrate  that  caused  the  dis- 
pute with  Chile  which   led   to  the  disastrous  war  of 
1879-83.     This  has  been  well  described  by  Mr.  Enock, 
and  here  it  will  suffice  to  say  that,  despite  the  heroic 
resistance  of  Peru,  Lima  was  occupied  under  circum- 
stances of  great  cruelty,  and  the  war  left  Peru  com- 
pletely  defeated    and    stripped    of    the    Province   of 
Tarapaca.    For  all  practical  purposes  Arica  and  Tacna 
may  be  added  to  Peru's  loss,  since  Chile,  although  a 
conditional  promise  was  made  that   they   should   be 
handed  back  in  ten  years,  has  never  restored  them. 
The  Republic,  crushed  under  a  load  of  foreign  debt, 
was  practically  bankrupt,  and  so,  in   the  interests  of 
foreign  bondholders  and  (incidentally)  of  Peru  itself, 
there   was  formed  in  London   in    1890  the  company 
known  as  the    Peruvian   Corporation.     "  Among  the 
principal   matters   stipulated   were :    The    ceding    by 
Peru  of  all  her  State  railways,  certain  sections  of  which 
the  Corporation  were  to  extend  ;  free  use  of  certain 
of  the  ports  on  the  coast — Mollendo,    Pisco,   Ancon, 
Chimbote,  Pascamayo,  Salaverry  and  Paita  ;  the  guano 
existing  in   Peru  up  to  a  certain  amount  ;  land  and 
colonization  grants,  etc.  ;  and  thirty-three  annual  sub- 
sidies of  ^80,000,  secured  on   the    Callao   customs " 
(Enock).     The  relations  between  the  Government  and 
the  Corporation  have  not   always   been  harmonious, 
but  the  arrangement,  which  rescued  Peru  from  debt 
and  secured  the  development  of  the  country,  has,  on 
the  whole,  been  most  advantageous  to  the  Republic. 


276       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Civil  disturbances  have  by  no  means  died  out,  but 
recent  Presidents  have  done  their  best  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  national  self-restraint 
has  been  conspicuously  shown  in  the  recent  boundary 
dispute  with  Ecuador,  \vhich,  under  rash  manage- 
ment, would  certainly  have  led  to  war.  Senor  J. 
Pardo  was  President  from  1904  to  1908,  Senor  A. 
Leguia  from  1908  to  1912,  and  the  last  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Senor  G.  E.  Billinghurst.  This  gentleman 
was  of  English  origin,  and  was  believed  to  be 
popular  with  the  people  at  large.  However,  he  set 
himself  to  curb  the  power  of  the  great  families, 
who,  as  in  all  other  Latin  American  countries,  mono- 
polize the  government  of  the  country.  Their  rule  is 
not  usually  enlightened,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
mob  would  manage  affairs  any  better.  However  this 
may  be,  Senor  Billinghurst  became  very  unpopular  in 
Lima,  and  in  February,  1914,  his  opponents  carried 
out  a  coup  d'etat,  in  which  one  of  his  principal 
adherents  was  killed. 

The  President  was  completely  crushed  and  went 
into  exile.  The  recent  history  of  Peru  shows  that  the 
country  is  still  as  liable  to  revolutions  as  ever — a  most 
expensive  luxury,  for  the  only  way  to  obtain  the  capital 
absolutely  necessary  for  development  is  to  preserve 
public  tranquillity. 

LIMA  AND  THE    PERUVIAN    COAST 

After  a  voyage  of  about  24  hours  from  Iquique  the 
steamer  reaches  Mollendo,  the  third  or  fourth  port  of 
Peru.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  commodious, 
although  the  Peruvian  Corporation  has  built  a  break- 
water and  mole.  The  landing  is  made  by  boats,  rowed 
by  somewhat  grasping  boatmen,  and  even  in  calm 
weather  there  is  usually  such  a  swell  that  the  leap  to 


PERU  277 

the  pier  is  a  feat  requiring  considerable  agility.  Mollendo 
has  a  considerable  trade,  but  it  is  a  shabby  little  place, 
and  will  only  interest  the  traveller  as  being  the  terminus 
of  a  very  important  railway  system.  The  exports  are 
valued  at  about  ^600,000  yearly.  A  French  traveller 
who  was  here  in  1899  says,  "  Les  deux  hotels  y  sont 
detestables,"  but  they  may  probably  have  improved 
since  then.  The  Southern  Railway  (owned,  like  nearly 
all  Peruvian  lines,  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation)  runs 
to  Arequipa,  at  a  distance  of  about  100  miles. 


AREQUIPA 

RAILWAYS — The  traveller  arrives  from  Mollendo  by  the  Southern 
Railway  ;  according  to  our  route  he  may  arrive  the  reverse 
way  from  La  Paz.  The  country  between  the  coast  and 
Arequipa  is  steep  and  arid.  The  line  proceeds  up  the  moun- 
tains as  far  as  Cuzco,  which  is  about  315  miles  from  Mollendo. 
At  Juliaca  there  is  a  junction  with  a  line  running  south  that 
gives  access  to  Bolivia. 

HOTELS — Central,  Europa,  France  et  Angleterre,  Internacional. 
The  two  best  hotels  ara  very-comfortable. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Vice-Consul  G.  Stafford. 

BANK — Banco  del  Peru  y  Londres. 

NEWSPAPERS — La  Bolsa,  El  Pueblo. 

Arequipa,  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1540,  is  the  City 
Beautiful  (Villa  hermosa),  with  nearly  40,000  inhabi- 
tants, at  an  elevation  of  7,850  feet.  There  is  a  service 
of  electric  cars.  This  town  is  on  the  banks  of  the  River 
Chili ;  the  houses  are  built  low  as  a  precaution  against 
the  earthquakes  by  which  Arequipa  has  often  been 
devastated  ;  slight  shocks  are  frequent.  The  Cathedral 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1848  ;  the  present  building  is  a 
handsome  modern  structure.  It  possesses  in  Mirti  a 
valuable  observatory,  the  property  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. A  French  writer  says  :  "I  do  not  hesitate  to  prefer 
a  residence  at  Arequipa  to  one  at  Lima  ;  the  climate  is 


278       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

delicious."     It  is  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the 
same  name. 

After  leaving  Arequipa  the  train  makes  its  way  over 
the  mountains  to  Puno,  on  Lake  Titicaca,  which  is 
itself  more  than  12,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Here 
the  traveller  may  take  steamer  and  make  his  way 
into  Bolivia.  As  already  stated,  he  may,  if  he  prefers, 
branch  off  northward  to  Cuzco,  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Incas.  "To-day,"  says  Mr.  Percy  Martin,  in  his 
recent  work  on  Peru,  "  the  electric  light  illumines  the 
straight  and  regular  streets  of  Cuzco  ;  trams — primitive 
and  uncomfortable,  but  still  tramways — perambulate 
the  thoroughfares;  a  railway-station,  located  a  mile  or  so 
from  the  town,  fills  the  quiet  air  with  locomotive  whist- 
ling, and  the  shunting  of  heavy  goods  wagons  can  be 
heard  both  day  and  night.  The  telegraph  and  the  tele- 
phone, fresh  fish  and  meat  of  the  best  quality,  a  profu- 
sion of  fruit  and  the  choice  of  many  comfortable 
modern  dwellings  make  Cuzco  a  by  no  means  un- 
pleasant place  in  which  to  reside  occasionally." 

The  Jesuit  Church  is  most  interesting,  as  are  the 
relics  of  the  Incas. 

Probably  many  travellers  will  prefer  to  neglect  the 
bleak  uplands  and  hurry  on  to  Lima,  the  pleasantest  city 
in  the  whole  of  South  America.  A  fast  boat  will  miss  the 
wine  port  of  Pisco  and  make  the  voyage  to  Callao  in 
about  40  hours.  The  approach  by  the  island  of 
San  Lorenzo  with  a  view  of  the  distant  Andes  is 
picturesque. 

CALLAO. 

STEAMSHIP  LINES— The  steamers  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company  sail  direct  from  Liverpool  to  Callao ;  the  cost  of  the 
journey  by  sea  all  the  way  is  £62.  By  Buenos  Aires  and  the 
Andes  the  fare  is  £66  i6s.  A  cheaper  and  quicker  route 
than  either  is  by  the  Royal  Mail  to  Colon,  across  the  Isthmus 


PERU  279 

by  rail,  and  down  the  Pacific  Coast  by  the  P.S.N.  Company ; 
the  fare  is  £48  i2s.  6d.  The  same  route  by  an  intermediate 
F  steamer  costs  ^35.  The  P.S.N.  Company  and  the  Chilian 
Company  have  a  frequent  service  by  fast  and  slow  boats  to 
all  Pacific  ports,  north  and  south.  The  Lamport  and  Holt 
and  the  Kosmos  Lines  sail  between  Europe  and  Callao.  By 
the  Kosmos  the  fare  (from  Hamburg  or  Antwerp)  is  £60. 
The  Panama  Railroad  Steamship  Line  has  a  service  to  New 
York  by  Panama  and  Colon  ;  the  fare  is  £34  43.  yd.  The 
fare  by  the  same  line  is  £25. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  a  railway  line  to  Lima,  for  which  see  Lima. 
The  best  way  to  get  to  Lima  from  Callao — a  distance  of  6 
miles — is  by  electric  car,  which  performs  the  journey  in  20 
minutes.  On  leaving  the  boat  the  traveller  may  give  his 
luggage  to  one  of  the  fleteros,  who  are  very  trustworthy  and 
will  convey  it  to  a  Lima  hotel  at  a  reasonable  rate. 

HOTELS— Blanco,  Genova. 

BRITISH   CONSUL — Consul-General,    George    G.   Wilson.    Vice 
Consul,  G.  F.  Boulton. 

NEWSPAPERS — El  Callao,  La  Prensa. 

Callao  is  the  principal  port  of  Peru.  It  has  no  objects 
of  interest.  Darwin  said  :  "  Callao  is  a  filthy,  ill-built, 
small  seaport.  .  .  .  The  atmosphere  is  loaded  with  foul 
smells,  and  that  peculiar  one,  which  may  be  perceived 
in  almost  every  town  within  the  tropics,  was  here  very 
strong."  The  port  is  cleaner  than  it  was  in  those  days, 
but  it  has  an  untidy  appearance,  and  every  one  who 
has  business  here  lives  in  Lima  if  he  can  afford  it. 


LIMA 

RAILWAYS — Lima  is  not  an  important  railway  centre;  in  fact, 
Peru  has  no  real  railway  system.  There  is  a  line  from  Callao 
through  Lima  to  Oroya,  whence  there  is  another  line  to 
Cerro  de  Pasco.  There  is  a  shorter  line  to  Ancon.  There 
are  also  railways  to  Chorillos,  Bella  Vista  and  several  neigh- 
bouring places,  which,  however,  can  generally  be  reached 
more  conveniently  by  tram. 

HOTELS — Hotel  Maury,  Plaza  Mayor.  Here  a  room  can  be 
obtained  for  45.  a  day  and  meals  are  taken  at  the  restaurant 


28o       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

attached.  This  hotel  is  one  of  the  most  comfortable  in 
South  America  and  the  food  is  good.  There  is  an  excellent 
restaurant,  the  Jardin  Estrasburgo,  in  the  same  square,  and 
here  also  are  good  tea-shops. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— The  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary is  E.  A.  Rennie.  Naval  Attache,  Captain  Heath- 
coat  Salusbury  Grant.  Military  Attache,  Colonel  Sir  E.  I.  B. 
Grogan,  Bart.  Vice-Consul,  Robert  A.  Clay. 

BANK — Banco  de  Peru  y  Londres. 

NEWSPAPERS— El  Comercio,  La  Prensa,  El  Diario  ;  these  are 
dailies.  Peru  To-day  is  a  monthly  magazine,  published  in 
English,  containing  useful  information  about  the  resources 
of  the  nation.  The  Prisma,  Actualidades,  Variedades  are 
illustrated  weeklies.  The  Revista  Historica  is  published  by 
the  Historical  Institute,  and  the  Geographic  Society  brings 
out  quarterly  publications.  El  Comercio,  founded  in  1839  by 
Manuel  Ascensio  Segura,  the  eminent  man  of  letters,  is 
probably  the  best  newspaper  on  the  Pacific  coast  and 
possesses  great  influence. 

There  is  an  English  Church. 

Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  with  a  population  of 
141,000,  is  the  most  famous  city  in  South  America.  It 
was  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1535,  and  here  six  years 
later  he  was  murdered.  It  was  by  far  the  most 
important  city  in  Spanish  America  and  was  the  depot 
for  all  the  trade.  In  1746  Lima  was  destroyed  by  a 
terrible  earthquake,  but  was  soon  rebuilt.  Lima  was 
long  loyal  to  Spain,  but  was  finally  detached  by  the 
efforts  of  the  Argentine  San  Martin.  It  has  never 
recovered  from  the  troubles  of  the  revolutionary  wars, 
for  Peru  suffered  more  than  almost  any  of  the 
Republics  from  the  anarchy  which  followed  the 
separation  from  Spain.  Darwin  said  in  1835  :  "  The 
city  of  Lima  is  now  in  a  wretched  state  of  decay  ;  the 
streets  are  nearly  unpaved  ;  and  heaps  of  filth  are  piled 
up  in  all  directions,  where  the  black  gallinazos,  tame  as 
poultry,  pick  up  bits  of  carrion."  He  adds  :  "  Lima, 
the  City  of  the  Kings,  must  formerly  have  been  a 
splendid  town.  The  extraordinary  number  of  churches 


PERU  281 

gives  it,  even  at  the  present  day,  a  peculiar  and  striking 
character,  especially  when  viewed  from  a  short 
distance."  Its  misfortunes  continued  to  a  very  late 
date,  for  in  January,  1881,  it  was  captured  by  the 
Chilian  troops,  when  the  National  Library  was  sacked 
and  fearful  outrages  committed.  In  spite  of  all  these 
troubles,  it  is  now  a  very  fine  city,  though  the  old 
prosperity  has  never  been  recovered. 

Lima  has  a  very  pleasant  climate.  The  Andes  keep 
off  the  northerly  and  easterly  winds,  and  cool  breezes 
blow  from  the  Pacific.  Rain  seldom  falls,  and  great 
heat  and  even  moderate  cold  never  occur.  The  mean 
temperature  is  66°  Fahr.  and  the  maximum  78°.  In 
spite  of  its  charm  Lima,  it  must  be  regretfully  admitted, 
is  not  healthy.  "The  death-rate  for  Lima  in  1909  was 
33*85  per  1,000,  and  the  birth-rate  31*02  per  1,000. 
The  death-rate  among  the  poorer  classes  is  very  large, 
due  principally  to  lung  diseases."  Tuberculosis  is 
indeed  a  terrible  scourge  in  many  parts  of  Spanish 
America,  and  the  following  table  given  by  Mr.  Percy 
Martin  may  be  of  interest  : — 

MORTALITY  PER  10,000  INHABITANTS  FROM 
TUBERCULOSIS 

Lima 62*1 

Caracas          6o'o 

Rio  de  Janeiro          38*0 

Santiago         38*0 

Havana          327 

Montevideo 16*0 

Buenos  Aires  14-2 

Mexico  City  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  14/0 

Salvador         13-7 

Europeans,  however,  usually  find  Lima  healthy,  and 
probably  the  traveller  will  feel  more  at  home  than  at 
any  other  time  during  his  travels  in  South  America. 
Not  only  is  the  English  colony  hospitable  and  the 


282       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Peruvians  distinguished  among  South  American  people 
for  their  courtesy  and  charm,  but  the  town  has  all  the 
attributes  of  real  comfort  and  refinement  which  are 
absent  from  many  larger  and  more  pretentious  places  ; 
and  when  to  these  attractions  are  added  a  mild  and 
equable  climate  and  much  historical  and  archaeological 
interest,  few  will  be  disposed  to  dispute  its  claim  to  the 
first  place  in  the  order  of  merit.  The  English  club  is 
the  Phcenix,  pleasantly  situated  in  the  Plaza  Mayor, 
and  there  are  several  good  Peruvian  clubs. 

Lima  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rimac.  The 
Plaza  Mayor  is  the  centre  of  the  town.  Here  are  the 
Government  Palace,  once  the  Palace  of  the  Viceroys, 
the  City  Hall,  the  Cathedral,  the  Archbishop's  Palace, 
and  many  clubs  and  shops.  Another  handsome  square 
is  the  Plaza  de  la  Inquisicion  with  a  statue  of  Bolivar. 
The  Plaza  de  la  Exposicion  is  farther  from  the  centre  ; 
here  at  the  entrance  to  the  beautiful  Pasco  Colon  is  a 
statue  of  San  Martin.  The  Pasco  Colon  is  the  chief 
fashionable  resort,  and  should  be  visited  on  Sunday 
evening,  when  the  beautiful  ladies  of  Lima  assemble 
here.  Here  is  a  statue  of  Columbus.  The  finest  statue 
in  Lima  is  also  in  the  Pasco  Colon — the  monument  to 
the  heroic  Colonel  Bolognesi,  who  was  killed  at  Arica 
in  the  Chilian  war.  It  is  the  work  of  the  Spanish 
sculptor  Querol.  Lima  is  bounded  on  two  sides  by 
the  long  Avenida  Gran  and  the  Avenida  Alfonso 
Ugarte ;  at  the  end  of  the  latter,  on  the  road  to  Callao, 
is  the  Dos  de  Mayo  monument,  which  commemorates 
the  successful  defence  of  the  port  of  Callao  against 
the  Spaniards  on  May  2,  1866.  By  the  Pasco  Colon 
is  the  Exposition  Park,  and  not  far  away  are  the 
beautiful  Botanical  Gardens.  In  this  neighbourhood 
are  some  of  the  finest  public  buildings. 

Lima  has  67  churches,  headed  by  the  Cathedral, 
which  is  one  of  the  best  in  South  America,  containing 


PERU  283 

a  glass  case  with  the  mummied  remains  of  Pizarro,  a 
handsome  pulpit  and  stalls  in  cedar  and  mahogany, 
and  a  picture  by  Murillo.  Among  other  churches  may 
be  mentioned  San  Pedro,  with  good  wood  carvings, 
and  La  Merced,  with  a  silver  front  to  its  high  altar. 
There  is  an  excellent  service  of  electric  trams,  and 
pleasant  excursions  may  be  made  to  Miraflores, 
Barranco  and  Chorillos,  all  pleasant  bathing-places,  a 
few  miles  southwards.  On  a  sunny  morning  it  is 
pleasant  to  stand  upon  the  high  cliffs  of  Miraflores  and 
see  the  Pacific  spreading  in  front  like  a  lake  of  glass, 
the  pretty  houses  of  Chorillos  on  the  left,  and  the 
smoke  of  Callao  far  away  to  the  right.  The  shops 
of  Lima  are  good,  though  not  cheap,  and  there  are 
several  theatres  and  a  race-course.  Altogether  it  is 
an  extremely  pleasant  city. 

According  to  North  American  writers,  and  those 
English  compilers  who  have  slavishly  followed  them, 
the  dominant  Spaniards  were  the  enemies  of  every 
kind  of  learning  and  enlightenment,  and  the  Church 
was  particularly  hostile  to  all  good  works.  According 
to  fact,  the  Spanish  Government  was  as  anxious  to 
spread  learning  as  to  enlarge  its  territorial  dominions, 
and  its  instrument  was  generally  one  or  other  of  the 
religious  Orders.  The  University  of  San  Marcos,  the 
oldest  in  the  two  Americas,  was  founded  in  1551  by 
the  Priors  of  the  Dominican  Order ;  twenty  years 
later  it  was  secularized  by  Philip  II.  "The  Viceroyalty 
of  Peru,"  says  the  editor  of  the  Spanish-American 
Anthology,  "  was  the  most  opulent  and  cultivated  of 
the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America,"  and  all 
through  the  centuries  of  Spanish  dominion  the  Uni- 
versity of  San  Marcos  took  the  lead.  The  University 
has  five  faculties — Jurisprudence,  Medicine,  Literature, 
Political  Science,  and  Theology.  It  would  be  rash  to 
affirm  that  the  institution  occupies  the  same  place  as 


284       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

it  did  in  Spanish  days.  A  gentleman  who  holds  high 
office  in  the  University,  asked  whether  there  was  a 
faculty  of  Ancient  Languages,  replied  :  "  We  in  Peru 
do  not  study  them,  for  we  think  it  a  waste  of  time 
to  learn  dead  languages."  About  1580  a  printing 
press  was  set  up  in  Lima,  and  henceforward  Peruvian 
literature  flourished.  The  National  Library  was 
opened  in  1822  with  an  extremely  valuable  collec- 
tion of  books,  largely  composed  of  the  productions  of 
the  Lima  press.  In  1881  the  Library  contained  50,000 
volumes,  when  it  was  pillaged  by  the  Chilians  and  the 
books  dispersed.  At  the  same  time  the  University 
buildings  were  used  as  cavalry  barracks.  Through  the 
exertions  of  Ricardo  Palma,  the  librarian,  a  consider- 
able number  of  stolen  volumes  were  recovered,  and 
now  the  collection  is  as  large  as  ever.  The  Athen- 
aeum, a  literary  club,  was  founded  in  1877.  One  of 
the  most  valuable  scientific  institutions  in  South 
America,  the  Geographical  Society,  which  was  founded 
in  1888,  devotes  itself  to  the  advancement  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge,  especially  in  the  unexplored 
parts  of  Peru.  The  Historical  Institute  was  founded 
more  recently.  There  are  Schools  of  Engineering, 
Mining  and  Agriculture. 

To  attempt  a  survey  of  Peruvian  literature  in  a  page 
or  two  is  an  impossible  task,  but  some  mention  ought 
to  be  made  of  a  few  of  the  distinguished  writers. 
Pablo  Antonio  Jose  Olivade  (1725-1803)  was  a  native 
of  Lima,  which  he  had  to  leave  for  Europe  owing  to 
the  hostility  of  the  Church.  In  Madrid  and  in  Paris 
he  was  a  very  influential  figure  and  was  in  constant 
communication  with  the  Encyclopaedists,  for  which 
reason  he  had  much  trouble  with  the  Inquisition  and 
was  obliged  to  fly  from  Spain.  In  spite  of  his  anti- 
clerical views  his  best  poetry  is  religious,  but  he  is 
chiefly  noteworthy  as  being  a  popularizer  of  eighteenth- 


PERU  285 

century  philosophy  in   Peru,  and  thus  preparing  the 
way  for  the  secession  from  Spain.     Another  writer  on 
the  same  side  was   Hipolito   Unanue,  of   Arica,  who 
edited   the   famous   Mercurio   Peruano.      Among   his- 
torical writers  Mariano  Eduardo  de  Rivero,  author  of 
Antiguedades  Peruanas,  was  conspicuous  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  there  were  several 
noted  scientific  writers.     The  greatest  Peruvian  poet 
was  Felipe  Pardo  y  Aliaga  (1806-68),  who,  born  in 
Lima,  was  brought  up  in  Spain,  where  he  won  the 
regard  of  the  Spanish  poet  Lista.     He  took  a  consider- 
able part  in  politics.     He  is  a  brilliant  lyric  and  narra- 
tive poet  of  the  classical  type,  and  also  a  dramatist ; 
his  El  Espejo  de  mi  tierra  was  very  popular.     Another 
poet  of  repute  was  Carlos  Augusto  Salaverry,  in  whose 
Diamonds  and  Pearls  are  a  number  of  good  sonnets. 
Manuel    Ascensio     Segura    (1805-71)    was    also    an 
accomplished  poet,  but   he   is   better   known  for  his 
witty  and  brilliant  comedies  of  Peruvian  life.     Pedro 
Paz    Soldan    (1839-95)    was  a  clever    literary  critic. 
Peruvian   literature   is   not   only  of    the  imagination. 
Besides  jurists  and  scientists,  who  have  written  many 
valuable   works,    Peru    is   specially   distinguished   for 
her  historians.     Manuel    Mendiburu    (1805-85)  is  the 
author  of   Diccionario  Biografico   del   Peru  in  sixteen 
volumes,  and  Ricardo  Palma,  the  librarian,  published 
in  1870  Tradiciones  Peruanas  in   six  volumes,  which 
is   one  of   the   most   valuable   historical  works  upon 
Spanish  Peru.      Mariano    Paz   Soldan    (1821-86)    did 
excellent  geographical  and  historical  work.     Francisco 
Garcia  Calderon,  who  died   in    1905,  was  a  copious 
historical  writer,  and   his  Latin  America,  which  has 
been  translated  into   English,  and  deals  chiefly  with 
the  intellectual  life  of  the  Republics,  is  almost  the  only 
work  of  its  kind  that  has  appeared  in  English  dress. 
This  hurried  summary  will  show  how  distinguished 


286       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

is  Lima  in  literature,  and  in  painting  and  music  Peru 
has  accomplished  more  than  her  neighbours. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  RAILWAY 

Every  one  who  visits  Lima  ought  to  make  the  trip 
up  the  mountain  railway,  but  he  should  not  fail,  as 
has  been  mentioned  elsewhere,  to  take  precautions 
against  mountain-sickness.  It  is  an  extremely  dis- 
agreeable ailment,  accompanied  by  severe  headache 
and  nausea,  which  is  liable  to  attack  those  who  sud- 
denly ascend  to  great  heights,  and  the  best  precaution 
is  to  halt  for  a  few  days  at  a  more  moderate  altitude. 
Tamboraque  (altitude  nearly  10,000  feet)  may  be 
recommended  for  this  purpose.  The  wonders  of  this 
broad-gauge  line  to  Oroya — begun  by  the  famous 
Meiggs  in  1869  and  finished  in  1893  at  a  total  cost  of 
-£5,000,000 — have  often  been  celebrated.  The  traveller 
will  leave  Lima  from  the  Desemperados  station  and 
pass  up  the  fertile  and  picturesque  valley  of  the  Rimac. 
In  ij  hours  the  pleasant  sanatorium  of  Chosica,  at 
an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  is  reached.  As  the  train 
mounts  to  greater  heights  the  aspect  of  the  mountains 
becomes  bleaker,  and  (7  hours  from  Lima)  the 
traveller  reaches  Casapalca,  which  stands  in  a  some- 
what dreary  valley  at  an  elevation  of  over  13,000  feet. 
Here  there  is  a  rich  silver-mine  under  English  manage- 
ment, with  smelting  works  for  refining  the  ore  ;  in 
busy  times  as  many  as  2,000  men  are  employed — all 
Indians.  The  ore  averages  60  ounces  to  the  ton,  and 
every  year  the  mine  turns  out  i-ij  million  ounces  of 
pure  silver  and  4,000  tons  of  copper.  The  managers 
of  this  flourishing  mine  are  most  hospitable  and 
exhibit  great  courtesy  in  pointing  out  the  various 
processes.  Not  long  after  leaving  Casapalca  the  train 
passes  through  the  Galera  tunnel,  at  an  elevation  of 
15,665  feet,  and,  pursuing  its  route  through  greener 


PERU  287 

and  more  open  country,  descends  to  Oroya  (12,180 
feet).  At  this  town,  which  does  not  possess  any 
special  attractions,  the  Central  Railway,  operated  by 
the  Peruvian  Corporation,  ends;  the  distance  from 
Lima  is  slightly  more  than  120  miles,  and  the  journey 
takes  about  12  hours,  which  is  a  short  time  consider- 
ing the  steepness  of  the  gradients.  A  change  has  to 
be  made  here  to  the  American  line,  which  runs  to 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  a  further  distance  of  82  miles,  and, 
as  the  height  to  be  climbed  is  only  about  2,000  feet, 
the  journey  can  be  performed  on  the  same  day  in  a 
few  hours.  Cerro  de  Pasco  (elevation  14,200  feet, 
population  8,000)  is  undoubtedly  the  highest  town 
in  the  world.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  small 
plateau,  and  commands  magnificent  views  of  the 
eternal  snows.  Its  prosperity  is  due  to  a  great 
American  mining  syndicate,  and  its  staff,  which 
includes  a  few  Canadians  and  Englishmen,  is  the 
most  genial  imaginable.  Their  club,  where  a  fine 
bowling  alley  is  the  chief  feature,  their  base-ball,  and, 
it  may  be  supposed,  the  profitable  nature  of  their 
occupation,  combine  with  the  general  feeling  that 
prevails  to  make  their  somewhat  isolated  life  pleasant, 
in  spite  of  the  rarefied  atmosphere.  The  community 
is  numerous,  for  besides  the  mines  of  the  town  there 
areasmeltry  and  coal-mine  some  8  or  10  miles  distant. 
The  copper-mines  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  take  a  very  high 
rank  in  the  world's  production  of  that  metal.  The 
latest  figures  to  hand  are  that  the  annual  output  was 
50  million  pounds  of  copper  and  275,000  tons  of 
coal ;  probably  the  figures  have  since  been  exceeded. 
Silver  also  is  obtained.  The  coal  is  mostly,  if  not 
entirely,  used  for  smelting,  and  when  the  price  of 
copper  is  low  it  is  the  practice  to  smelt  all  the  ore 
and  export  nothing  but  the  pure  metal,  in  order  to 
economize  in  cost  of  carriage. 


288       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

There  is  a  plan  for  building  a  railway  from  Cerro  de 
Pasco  to  Pucalpa,  about  4  days'  journey  by  steamer 
from  Iquitos.  It  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  to 
reach  this  Amazonian  port  by  land  ;  if  a  visit  to  it  is 
desired,  it  should  be  included  in  the  Amazonian  trip, 
when  it  can  easily  be  reached  from  Manaos.  Iquitos 
has  a  British  Consul.  Its  population  is  about 
10,000.  It  exports  rubber,  hides,  vegetable  ivory, 
tobacco  and  hats.  It  has  a  larger  trade  than  any 
other  Peruvian  port  except  Callao.  It  is  connected 
with  Liverpool  by  the  Booth  Line,  and  several  other 
lines  of  steamers  ply  the  Amazon. 

The  traveller  will  probably  leave  Peru  with  more 
regret  than  he  experiences  in  parting  from  any  other 
Latin  American  country.  Leaving  Callao,  the  com- 
fortable steamer  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company  will  make  its  way  northwards  along  the 
well-named  Pacific  coast,  and  probably  a  brief  halt  may 
be  made  at  Supe,  a  little  port  protected  by  a  small 
rocky  promontory  and  backed  by  the  Andes  in  the 
misty  distance,  whose  snowy  peaks  glitter  when  they 
catch  the  sun's  rays.  It  is  a  sugar  port. 

A  far  more  important  sugar  port  is  Salaverry,  256 
miles  north  of  Callao  ;  it  serves  Truxillo,  with  which 
flourishing  old  town  and  Ascope  it  is  joined  by  a 
railway.  The  means  of  landing  are  primitive  ;  if  the 
tub  which  usually  serves  to  haul  passengers  from  the 
boat  to  the  jetty  happens  for  any  reason  to  be  out  of 
use,  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  rope  ladder,  and  a 
considerable  swell  often  adds  to  <;the  excitement. 
Pacasmayo  and  Eten,  both  sugar  ports  very  similar  to 
Salaverry,  are  quickly  passed,  and  the  next  day  the 
vessel  reaches  Paita  (160  miles  north  of  Eten)  in  a 
fine  bay. 


PERU  289 

PAITA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — As  at  Callao. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  a  railway  at  Piura,  which  is  100  miles 
inland,  and  it  has  been  extended  to  Catacaos,  a  little  farther 
inland.  There  is  a  project  for  making  a  line  from  Paita  to  a 
port  on  the  Maranon  River — a  distance  of  about  430  miles  ; 
it  would  be  a  most  useful  railway. 

HOTEL — Pacifico  (about  125.  a  day). 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Vice-Consul,  H.  E.  Dawson. 

BANK — Banco  del  Peru. 

N  EWSPAPERS — Unimportant. 

Paita  has  a  population  of  only  2,000,  but  the  harbour 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  exports  hats, 
tobacco  and  charcoal ;  the  oil  of  the  Department  is 
shipped  from  Talara  and  Zorritos.  It  is  the  fifth  port 
of  the  Republic,  coming  after  Callao,  Iquitos,  Mol- 
lendo  and  Salaverry.  Piura  (Gran  Hotel  and  Hotel 
Colon),  with  10,000  inhabitants,  is  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  that  name.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  heroic  Admiral  Gran.  Its  chief  importance  is  in 
the  fact  that  the  finest  Peruvian  cotton  comes  from 
this  district ;  the  best  of  all  comes  from  Lechura.  Not 
far  away  is  Catacaos,  celebrated  for  the  so-called 
Panama  hats.  In  the  Department  also  are  the  im- 
portant petroleum  wells  to  which  allusion  has  already 
been  made. 

After  leaving  Paita  in  the  evening  the  vessel  will 
next  day  be  steaming  through  Ecuadorian  waters. 

There  is  no  lack  of  books  upon  Peru  ;  many  of  the  historical 
works  are  well  known,  and  much  has  been  written  of  late  about 
its  archaeology.  Sir  Clement  Markham's  works  are  valuable. 
Mr.  Enock  has  travelled1  much  in  the  country,  and  his  books 
perhaps  give  the  best  modern  survey  of  its  physical  features, 
resources  and  general  condition.  The  following  books  are  all 
useful : — 


29o       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Plane,  Auguste.     Le  Perou.     Paris,  1903. 

Enock,  R.  C.     Peru.     London,  1908.     South  A  merican  Series. 

The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,     London,  1908. 

Walle,  Paul.     Le  Perou  economique.     Paris,  1908. 

Wright,  Mrs.  M.  R.     The  Old  and  New  Peru.     Philadelphia  and 

London. 
Martin,  P.  F.     Peru  of  the  Twentieth  Century.     London,  1911. 


URUGUAY 

Railways  shown  thus 


"GEOGRAPHIA  "UP  33  STRAND,  LONDON.  WC 


URUGUAY 

URUGUAY  or  Banda  Oriental  is  the   smallest  of 
all  the  South  American  Republics,  but  being  well 
situated  for  trade,  with  old-established  and   carefully 
organized  pastoral  industries,  and  possessing  in  Monte- 
video the  fifth  largest  city  of  the  continent,  it  has  an 
importance  out  of  proportion  to  its  area  and  popu- 
lation.    The    area   is    72,210   square    miles    and   the 
population    1,094,688.     It    is    bounded   on    the    north 
and  east  by  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  the  wide  estuary 
of  the  River  Plate,  and  is  separated  from  its  western 
neighbour  Argentina  by  the  vast  River  Uruguay,  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  Republic.     The  pleasant  climate, 
the  fine  pastures,  the  splendid  waterways,  the  natural 
adaptability  to  lines  of  railway  have  all  contributed  to 
make  the  Republic  prosperous,  and  a  further  stimulus 
is  fifty  millions  sterling  of  British  capital  which  has 
been  wisely  invested  in  industries  and  railways.     The 
south  of  the  country  closely  resembles  the  characteristic 
Pampas  of  Argentina,   though,  unlike  them,  it  is  by 
no  means  destitute  of  stone,  which,  by  supplying  cheap 
railway  material,  gives  it  a  great  advantage  over  the 
neighbouring  Republic.     In  the  centre  and  north  low 
ranges  of  hills\euchillas)  begin  to  rise,  but  their  insig- 
nificance is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  although  railways 
are  numerous,  there  is  only  one  tunnel  in  the  whole 
country — at  Banada  de  Rocha,  a  little  to  the  north  of 

293 


294       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Tacuarembo,  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  Brazilian 
frontier. 

The  Uruguayan  Campo  is  more  pleasant  than  the 
Argentine,  being  undulating  and  purple  with  the 
beautiful  flos  morala.  The  country  is  well  watered. 
The  northern  part  of  Uruguay  is  broken  and  hilly, 
but  no  height  attains  an  elevation  of  more  than  2,000 
feet.  The  principal  ranges  are  the  Cuchilla  de  Haedo 
on  the  north  and  the  Cuchilla  Grande  on  the  south 
and  east ;  the  scenery  is  often  picturesque.  The 
geology  of  Uruguay  resembles  that  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul.  Sandstone  rests  upon  a  foundation  of  schists 
and  crystalline  rocks,  and  the  plains  of  the  south  are, 
like  those  of  Argentina,  covered  with  alluvial  deposits. 

The  great  River  Uruguay  never  actually  enters  the 
country,  being  its  continuous  boundary.  It  is  navig- 
able up  to  Salto,  where  rapids  occur.  The  chief 
tributary  of  the  Uruguay  is  the  Rio  Negro,  which  has 
a  course  of  about  280  miles,  and  with  its  affluents 
drains  a  large  portion  of  the  country.  It  is  navigable 
as  far  as  Mercedes.  All  other  rivers  in  Uruguay  are 
small. 

The  grazing-grounds  of  Uruguay  are  covered  with 
Pampa  grass  as  in  Argentina,  and  the  flora,  for  the 
most  part,  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Argentine 
Pampas.  Trees  are  much  more  numerous  than  in 
the  neighbouring  Republic,  and  the  most  valuable  for 
timber  are  the  algarrobo,  the  guayabo,  the  quebracho, 
and  the  urunday.  The  willow,  poplar,  and  mimosa 
are  common.  Near  the  Brazilian  frontier  trees  are 
more  numerous  and  vegetation  more  luxuriant  ;  palms 
grow  freely. 

The  fauna  is  not  now  particularly  numerous,  for  most 
of  the  wild  animals  have  been  destroyed.  The  jaguar, 
puma,  tapir  and  other  common  South  American 
quadrupeds  still  linger  on  the  Brazilian  border,  and 


URUGUAY  295 

the  howling  monkey  is  common  in  this  district.  The 
ostrich  (Rhea  americana)  is  seldom  seen  except  upon 
the  ostrich  farms.  The  burrowing  owl  is  found  all 
over  the  Pampas,  and  the  vulture  is  common.  On  the 
southern  coast  the  rattlesnake  may  be  found. 


PRODUCE  AND  INDUSTRIES 

In  1912  the  imports  were  £10,506,383 
exports    „      £10,947,872 

In  1911  Great  Britain  sent  to  Uruguay  goods  valued 
at  .£2,886,000.  In  this  trade  she  is  far  ahead  of  all 
others,  Germany  being  second  and  the  United  States 
third.  Textiles,  coal  and  machinery  are  the  principal 
imports.  Great  Britain's  share  in  the  export  trade 
is  less  prominent,  amounting  to  .£1,425,000.  In  1911 
the  following  were  the  chief  exports  : — 

Gold  dollars 

Wool           19,491,000 

Hides          9,976,000 

Meat  and  extracts            7,017,000 

Sand            1,312,000 

Animal  fat 1,119,000 

Live  stock 790,000 

Cereals        .'. 473,000 

The  foreign  trade  of  Uruguay  is  considerably  more 
than  twice  as  large  as  it  was  in  1882.  Up-to-date 
figures  of  the  trade  cannot  be  obtained.  The  figures 
given  above  show  the  vast  preponderance  of  the 
pastoral  industry.  The  land  devoted  to  that  purpose 
is  estimated  at  37,000,000  acres,  while  1,383,800  are 
cultivated.  The  following  is  the  official  census  of 
live  stock  in  1909,  and  large  as  the  numbers  are,  they 
are  probably  understated  :— 


296       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Sheep  16,608,617 

Cattle  6,827,428 

Horses  561,408 

Pigs...  93,923 

Mules  22,992 

Goats  20,428 

The  industry  is  chiefly  centred  in  Salto,  Paysandu, 
and  Rio  Negro,  but  it  is  carried  on  in  all  the  Depart- 
ments. Durazno  and  Soriano  are  largely  devoted  to 
sheep.  This  predominant  industry  naturally  gives 
Uruguay  a  rural  character.  Paysandu  and  Salto, 
the  next  largest  towns  to  Montevideo,  have  only 
about  20,000  inhabitants  each.  All  the  energies  of 
the  people  are  devoted  to  the  raising  and  slaughtering 
of  live  stock,  and  the  great  city  of  Montevideo  lives 
by  handling  the  products  and  serving  as  a  centre  of 
distribution  for  imports.  These  features  are  repro- 
duced on  a  larger  and  more  varied  scale  in  Argentina, 
and  therefore  a  detailed  description  of  life  upon  the 
estancia  is  not  necessary.  For  many  years  the  great 
object  of  the  owners  of  the  estancias  has  been  to 
improve  the  live  stock,  and  the  indigenous  cattle  have 
advanced  rapidly  in  quality  as  the  result  of  lavish 
importation  of  Durhams  and  Herefords.  To  a  smaller 
extent  Devons  and  Polled  Angus  have  been  intro- 
duced. For  improving  the  breed  of  sheep  the  Merino, 
Lincoln,  Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Romney  Marsh,  and 
Southdown  have  been  imported,  and  the  Merino 
makes  a  particularly  fine  cross  with  English  breeds 
for  the  purpose  of  wool.  /The  export  of  frozen  beef 
and  mutton,  although  a  young  industry,  is  now  on  a 
large  scale.  For  example,  La  Frigorifica  Uruguaya, 
in  the  Department  of  Montevideo,  has  plant  capable 
of  slaughtering  daily  200  head  of  cattle  and  2,000 
sheep.  Another  industry  is  that  of  jerked  beef  or 
charquif  which  is  exported  in  large  quantities  to 


URUGUAY  297 

the  neighbouring  Republics.  It  is  merely  beef  cut 
into  long  thin  strips  and  dried  in  the  sun.  Though 
readily  eaten  by  South  Americans,  it  is  tough  and 
unappetizing  to  the  stranger.  The  export  of  wool  is 
very  large,  and  mostly  goes  to  France.  Although 
agriculture  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  small  industry, 
the  production  of  wheat,  oats  and  linseed  is  rapidly 
increasing.  In  1912  the  production  was  : — 

Cwt. 

Wheat           4,766,460 

Oats   ...                                                      ...  529>872 

Linseed         446,340 

Barley                       36»576 

Rye 1,102 

The  Departments  of  Montevideo,  Salto,  Canelones, 
and  Colonia  produce  wine  ;  the  output  is  nearly 
four  million  gallons  yearly.  In  the  north  tobacco 
and  olives  are  cultivated.  Efforts  are  being  made  to 
develop  the  mineral  wealth.  Gold  is  found  in  con- 
siderable quantity  in  Rivera,  a  northern  Department, 
and  silver,  copper  and  various  precious  stones  are 
scattered  over  the  Republic,  but  the  produce  of  the 
various  mines  has  not  hitherto  been  very  large. 

The  roads  of  Uruguay  are  much  better  than 
those  of  its  neighbours.  The  national  roads  have  a 
mileage  of  2,240,  and  other  roads  amount  to 
3,100  miles.  The  railways  amount  to  1,570  miles. 
They  are  all  broad  gauge  (4  feet  8J  inches),  and  all 
British  built  and  owned.  The  Central  Uruguay  Rail- 
way, including  the  Western,  Northern  and  Eastern 
Extensions,  is  by  far  the  most  important  company 
in  Uruguay,  having  a  total  length  of  970  miles.  It 
runs  north  to  Durazno  and  a  shorter  line  runs  north- 
east to  Minas.  The  Western  Extension  runs  to  the 
important  town  of  Mercedes  on  the  north-west 


298       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  due  west  to  Colonia  Suiza  on  the  coast.  The 
Northern  Extension  runs  from  Durazno  to  Rivera 
on  the  Brazilian  frontier.  This  is  a  most  important 
extension,  for  it  is  now  possible  to  journey  by  rail 
from  Montevideo  to  Rio  de  Janeiro;  the  Brazilian 
town  of  Sant'  Anna  adjoins  Rivera.  The  Eastern 
Extension  starts  from  Pando,  near  Montevideo,  and 
goes  north-east  to  Melo  ;  at  Nico  Perez  there  is  a 
branch  running  almost  due  east  to  Treinta  y  Tres. 
This  brief  summary  will  show  what  an  extensive 
and  valuable  line  is  the  Central  Uruguay.  The  North- 
Western  of  Uruguay  is  113  miles  in  length,  running 
from  Salto,  where  the  Uruguay  becomes  unnavigable, 
to  Santa  Rosa  on  the  Brazilian  frontier.  The  River 
Quarahim  separates  it  from  the  terminus  of  the  Brazil 
Great  Southern  Railway,  and  passengers  are  now 
ferried  across,  but  a  bridge  is  being  built.  The  Mid- 
land Uruguay  Railway,  which  serves  the  chief  pastoral 
district,  connects  Salto  with  the  capital.  It  runs  by 
Paysandu  and  Algorta  to  Tres  Arboles  ;  here  there 
is  a  branch  line  of  36  miles  to  Piedra  Sola,  on  the 
Northern  Extension.  From  Tres  Arboles  it  is  but 
a  short  distance  to  Paso  de  las  Toros,  and  thus  the 
north-west  is  linked  up  with  the  main  system  of  the 
Republic.  From  Algorta  the  Midland  has  a  most 
important  branch  of  87  miles,  which  runs  to  the 
rising  town  and  port  of  Fray  Bentos. 

The  Uruguay  Northern  is  a  short  line  of  73  miles  ; 
it  runs  from  Isla  de  Cabellos  to  San  Eugenio  on  the 
Brazilian  frontier.  The  Uruguay  East  Coast  Railway 
is  from  Olmos,  on  the  line  to  Minas,  eastward  to 
Maldonado,  on  the  coast.  All  the  railways  are  pros- 
perous, and  they  have  been  of  incalculable  benefit  in 
developing  the  resources  of  the  country. 


URUGUAY  299 

MONEY 

The  theoretical  monetary  unit  is  the  gold  dollar, 
which  is  worth  43.  $d. ;  Uruguay  is  fortunate  in  having 
a  fixed  rate  of  exchange.  There  is,  however,  no 
Uruguayan  gold  in  circulation.  The  silver  peso, 
which  circulates,  weighs  25  grammes.  The  Bank  of 
the  Republic  has  the  sole  right  to  issue  notes.  The 
metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  officially  in 
force,  but  the  old  are  frequently  used,  of  which  the 
quintal  (slightly  over  101  Ib.)  is  perhaps  the  most 
common. 

FINANCE 

In  1912-13  the    revenue          was  estimated  at  ^7,477,085 
„  expenditure  „  7,474,930 

The  customs  duties  contribute  £3,919,970  to  the 
revenue.  The  debt  is  £28,054,796,  and  the  cost  of  its 
service  amounts  to  £1,638,731.  The  public  indebted- 
ness is  undoubtedly  large  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion, but  South  Australia,  with  about  one-third  the 
population  of  Uruguay,  has  a  larger  debt.  The 
financial  position  of  the  Republic  is  undoubtedly  high. 

CONSTITUTION 

The  constitution  (dating  from  1830)  possesses  few 
features  of  special  interest.  Executive  power  is,  of 
course,  in  the  hands  of  the  President,  elected  for  four 
years,  who  is  assisted  by  seven  Ministers.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Senate  (19  members) 
and  the  Chamber  of  Representatives  (75).  It  may  be 
noted  that  each  Department  has  one  Senator,  chosen 
for  six  years  by  an  Electoral  College.  The  government 
of  Uruguay  is  tolerably  efficient,  and  the  judicial 
system  has  lately  been  reformed. 


300       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

HISTORY 

Before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  the  territory  now 
known  as  Uruguay  was  inhabited  by  the  fierce  Charrua 
Indians,  and  it  was  here  and  by  their  hands  that  the 
famous   explorer    Juan    Diaz   de   Solis  met  with    his 
death  in  1515.     Such  history  as  there  is  belongs  to  the 
Plate  District,  of  which  the  seats  of  government  were 
Buenos   Aires   and   Asuncion,   but    there   is   little   to 
record,  for   the   Spaniards  could   not  make  headway 
against  the  Charruas.     Early  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury Hernandarias,  the  wise  Governor  of  Buenos  Aires, 
sent  across  the  river  a  hundred  head  of  cattle  and  the 
same  number  of  horses  and  mules.     These  were  turned 
loose  in  Uruguay  and  multiplied  exceedingly.     In  1618 
missionary  work  began  with  the  Franciscans,  and  six 
years  later   Bernardo  de    Guzman    founded    a    Jesuit 
settlement.     These  circumstances  made  a  beginning  in 
the  direction   of  prosperity  and  civilization,   but    the 
progress  of   the  district  was  hampered    by  incessant 
wars  between  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  who  both 
claimed  it.     In  1680  the  Portuguese  daringly  established 
a  military  settlement  at  Colonia,  almost  opposite   to 
Buenos   Aires,  and  this  place,   being  constantly   lost 
and   won    by   either   antagonist,   played    the   part   of 
Berwick  between  England  and  Scotland.     To  counter- 
act Portuguese  influence  the  Spaniards  on  December  24, 
1726,  founded    Montevideo,  which,  being  excellently 
placed   for  trade  and  having  a   good   harbour,   soon 
became   a   flourishing   city.     In    1776    Ceballos,    the 
Spanish  Viceroy,  finally  captured  Colonia,  and  Spain 
and  Portugal  came  to  an  agreement  as  to  their  bound- 
aries.    The  struggles  of  the  rivals,  the  advent  of  the 
English  (which  gave  the  people  of  the  Plate  District  a 
taste  for  British  trade  which  they  have  never  lost),  and 
the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  which  followed  almost 


URUGUAY  301 

immediately,  are  briefly  told  under  the  heading  of 
Argentina.  When  the  Spanish  Royalists  were  finally 
expelled  from  Montevideo  in  1814,  the  Uruguayan 
national  hero  Artigas,  a  half-savage  but  magnanimous 
gaucho,  found  himself  greatly  embarrassed,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  Argentina,  which  desired  to  incorporate 
Uruguay,  and  on  the  other  by  Brazil,  which  marched 
troops  into  his  territory  on  the  specious  pretext  of 
putting  an  end  to  anarchy.  After  a  fierce  struggle 
of  ten  years  the  Brazilians  prevailed  and  Artigas  was 
obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  with  Francia,  the  tyrant  of 
Paraguay,  where  he  ended  his  days.  But  his  spirit 
was  not  dead.  Uruguay  chafed  under  a  Portuguese 
(Brazilian)  yoke.  A  little  band  of  thirty-three  (the 
Trienta  y  Tres),  who  have  given  their  name  to  a 
Department,  succeeded  in  securing  Argentine  inter- 
vention, and  after  several  years  of  war  the  Brazilians 
were  driven  out.  Uruguay  became  independent  in 
1829,  and  in  1830  drew  up  a  constitution  which 
still  remains  substantially  in  force.  Unfortunately 
Lavallega  and  Rivera,  the  two  generals  who  had  won 
their  country's  independence,  turned  their  arms  against 
each  other,  and  a  long  period  of  anarchy  and  faction 
fights  ensued,  of  which  the  evil  tradition  is  not  yet 
extinct.  Darwin,  who  saw  much  of  Uruguay  at  this 
time,  says  :  "  Police  and  justice  are  quite  inefficient. 
If  a  man  who  is  poor  commits  a  murder,  and  is  taken, 
he  will  be  imprisoned,  and  perhaps  even  shot ;  but  if 
he  is  rich  and  has  friends,  he  may  rely  on  it  no  very 
severe  consequence  will  ensue.  It  is  curious  that  the 
most  respectable  inhabitants  of  the  country  invariably 
assist  a  murderer  to  escape  ;  they  seem  to  think  that  the 
individual  sins  against  the  Government,  and  not  against 
the  people.  A  traveller  has  no  protection  besides  his 
firearms  ;  and  the  constant  habit  of  carrying  them  is 
the  main  check  to  more  frequent  robberies."  He  also 


302       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

draws  a  dark  picture  of  the  corruption  of  justice,  but 
was  not  unhopeful  of  the  future  of  the  country,  remark- 
ing :  "  The  very  general  toleration  of  foreign  religions, 
the  regard  paid  to  the  means  of  education,  the  freedom 
of  the  press,  the  facilities  offered  to  all  foreigners,  and 
especially,  as  I  am  bound  to  add,  to  every  one  possess- 
ing the  humblest  pretensions  to  science,  should  be 
recollected  with  gratitude  by  those  who  have  visited 
Spanish  South  America." 

It  would  be  unprofitable  to  go  into  the  monotonous 
details  of  barren  wars,  but  the  establishment  of  the  two 
historic  parties,  the  Colorados  and  the  Blancos,  under 
circumstances  reminiscent  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
must  be  noted.  In  1835  Rivera  adopted  red  badges 
for  his  troops,  while  his  then  rival,  Oribe,  gave  his  men 
white  favours,  and,  under  the  names  of  Reds  and 
Whites,  the  two  parties  have  maintained  a  fierce 
struggle  ever  since.  Broadly  viewed,  the  Blancos  are 
countrymen  and  the  Colorados  townsmen,  but  this  is 
not  a  clean-cut  distinction,  and  there  is  no  distinction 
in  principles  ;  it  is  really  a  contest  of  Ins  against  Outs. 
The  Colorados  have  been  "in"  since  1864,  and  the 
periodical  efforts  of  the  Blancos  to  remove  them  give 
rise  to  frequent  "  revolutions,"  which,  however,  are  not 
very  terrible  affairs.  Foreigners  are  never  molested, 
although  indirectly  they  suffer  loss  by  the  dislocation 
of  the  labour  market  and  the  interruption  of  business. 
The  progress  of  the  Republic  was  retarded  by  its  share 
in  the  great  war  with  Paraguay  in  the  sixties,  but  after 
this  the  development  of  communications  with  the  Old 
World  and  the  cessation  of  foreign  wars  brought  about 
an  increase  in  trade  and  prosperity  which  no  faction 
fights  could  check.  Turbulence,  however,  did  not 
disappear.  In  1897  President  Borda  was  assassinated 
in  the  streets  of  Montevideo,  and  the  murderer  received 
a  sentence  of  two  years'  imprisonment,  on  the  ground 


URUGUAY  303 

that  his  offence  was  political.  In  1903  the  Colorados 
and  Blancos  engaged  in  civil  war  and  much  blood  was 
shed.  President  Williman  (1907-11)  had  to  sup- 
press a  small  Blanco  "revolution"  in  1910,  but  he  was 
able  to  report  a  condition  of  peace  and  prosperity 
when  on  March  i,  1911,  he  handed  over  charge  to  his 
successor,  Don  Jose  Batlle  y  Ordonez.  This  gentleman 
is  not  new  to  office,  having  already  served  as  President 
from  1903  to  1907.  Within  the  last  year  or  two  there 
has  been  considerable  labour  trouble,  but  the  material 
prosperity  of  Uruguay  is  rapidly  advancing,  and  there 
is  good  hope  that  political  conditions  will  show  a  like 
improvement. 

MONTEVIDEO 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — These  are  practically  the  same  as  at  Buenos 
Aires ;  some  of  the  big  steamers  pass  it,  but  arrangements 
can  generally  be  made  to  be  conveyed  from  Buenos  Aires 
hither  with  little  loss  of  time.  Montevideo  is  7,030  miles 
from  England. 

RAILWAYS — Montevideo  is,  like  Buenos  Aires,  the  railway  centre 
of  the  country,  but  the  Central  Uruguay  Railway  is  the 
only  line  that  has  its  terminus  here.  Colon,  the  inland 
pleasure  resort,  is  reached  by  the  electric  tramcar,  and  the 
same  remark  applies  to  the  bathing  places  of  Pocitos  and 
Ramirez. 

HOTELS— Oriental,  Calle  Piedras,  135  (los.  to  255.  a  day) ;  Pyra- 
mides,  Calle  Sarandi,  289  (about  125.  6d.  a  day)  ;  Central, 
Calle  25  de  Mayo,  239  ;  Grand  Hotel,  Calle  Sarandi,  325-7  ; 
Palacio  Florida  Hotel,  Calle  Florida  and  Mercedes ; 
Splendid  Hotel,  Calle  Buenos  Aires,  253 ;  Lanata, 
Plaza  Matriz.  In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  two  hotels 
which  are  open  in  the  summer  only — the  Parque  Hotel  at 
Parque  Urbano,  Ramirez,  and  the  Pocitos  Hotel  at  Pocitos. 
The  hotels  of  Montevideo  are  of  fair  quality  ;  the  Palacio 
Florida  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — The  British  Envoy  Extraordinary,  Minister 
Plenipotentiary,  and  Consul-General  is  Mr.  A.  Mitchell 
Innes.  The  Naval  Attache  is  Captain  Heathcoat  Salusbury 
Grant,  R.N. ;  and  the  Military  Attache,  Colonel  Sir  E.-J.  B. 


304       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

Grogan.      Vice-Consuls  :    H.    C.     Ricardo,    Major    De    S. 

Dobree,  C.  E.   R.  Rowland. 
BANKS— London  and  River  Plate,  London  and  Brazilian  Bank, 

Anglo-South     American    Bank,     British     Bank    of    South 

America,  Banco   Espanol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
NEWSPAPERS — El   Telegrafo  Maritime,   Dia  El  Siglio  Maritimo, 

Diario  del  Plata,  Montevideo  Times. 

There  is  an  Anglican  Church  at  Montevideo,  dedicated  to  the 
Holy  Trinity,  in  the  Calle  Santa  Teresa. 


Montevideo,  with  a  population  of  325,000,  is  situated 
on  the  eastern  side  of  a  fine  bay  and  looks  across  the 
water  to  the  Cerro,  on  the  western  side,  the  high  hill 
which  dominates  the  landscape  and  gave  its  name  to  the 
city.  Montevideo  is  less  than  two  hundred  years  old  ; 
reference  has  already  been  made  to  its  history.  The 
best  part  of  the  town  is  modern,  and  is  laid  out  in 
the  usual  Latin  American  fashion,  with  plazas  or 
squares  and  long  straight  streets  intersecting  one 
another  at  right  angles.  The  traveller  will  find  the 
public  cabs  indifferent  and  extortionate,  and  this 
defect  must  be  attributed  to  the  excellent  and  cheap 
service  of  the  electric  tramcars,  which  run  to  all  parts 
of  the  city,  suburbs,  and  neighbouring  places,  and 
makes  the  competition  of  horse-drawn  vehicles  hope- 
less. Montevideo  has  140  miles  of  tramlines.  The 
central  square  is  the  Plaza  Matriz,  which  contains 
the  Club  Uruguay,  of  which  most  of  the  members 
are  Uruguayans,  and  the  English  Club.  There  is  a 
large  English  colony  in  Montevideo,  which  possesses 
a  school  arid  a  hospital  of  its  own. 

The  Cathedral,  in  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  is 
a  large  building  with  two  lofty  towers  on  the  side  of 
the  fagade,  and  a  huge  dome  covered  with  green, 
blue  and  yellow  tiles.  There  is  a  handsome  fountain 
in  the  middle  of  the  square ;  but  the  only  other  notable 


URUGUAY  305 

building,  apart  from  the  Cathedral,  is  the  stone  Town 
Hall,  which  goes  back  to  Spanish  times. 

The  Plaza  de  la  Independencia  is  a  magnificent 
square  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  surrounded  by 
colonnaded  buildings,  in  which  most  of  the  Govern- 
ment offices  are  located. 

The  Prado,  a  fine  park,  is  half  an  hour  from  the 
centre  of  the  town  by  tram,  and  a  pleasant  excursion 
(8  miles)  may  also  be  made  to  Colon,  where  the 
eucalyptus  avenues  are  noticeable.  But  the  favourite 
resort  of  the  people  of  Montevideo  is  Pocitos,  a  small 
seaside  place  connected  with  the  capital  by  an 
electric  tramline,  whither  numbers  go  in  the  season 
both  from  the  Uruguayan  capital  and  from  Buenos 
Aires  for  the  sea-bathing.  Montevideo  is  very  like  a 
smaller  Buenos  Aires,  and  its  "  lions  "  are  exhausted 
in  a  proportionately  shorter  time. 

Montevideo  is  a  great  trading  centre,  and  all  the 
other  Uruguayan  towns  are  dwarfs  in  comparison. 
English  enterprise  in  railways,  tramways,  and  the 
meat  trade  is  conspicuous,  but  it  is  needless  to  say 
that  the  methods  of  our  merchants  are  unfavourably 
compared  with  those  of  Germany,  and,  as  competition 
from  that  country  and  the  United  States  is  becom- 
ing yearly  keener,  it  may  be  well  to  run  the  risk  of 
telling  a  very  old  story  by  quoting  from  a  Consular 
Report  issued  a  few  years  ago.  The  writer  complains 
that  British  firms  pay  insufficient  attention  to  details, 
and  adds  :  "  In  tenders  for  public  works  German 
firms  study  the  specifications  with  minute  care,  and 
tender  for  every  item,  leaving  nothing  in  doubt, 
besides  drawing  up  their  applications  in  so  clear 
and  simple  a  manner  as  to  give  the  minimum  labour 
in  examination  and  the  maximum  of  facility  in  com- 
parison to  the  authorities  who  deal  with  them  ;  where- 
as British  tenderers  sometimes  merely  quote  a  lump 


306       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

sum,  ignoring  all  details,  and  often,  when  details  are 
given,  the  price  of  many  items  is  left  vague,  '  as  may 
be  agreed  upon.'  When  goods  are  imported  into  the 
country  from  Germany,  France,  the  United  States  of 
America,  etc.,  a  detailed  statement  in  Spanish  of 
the  contents  of  each  package  is  generally  furnished, 
with  metric  weights  and  measures,  which  facilitates 
their  rapid  examination  and  dispatch  ;  whereas  British 
firms  as  a  rule  content  themselves  with  the  brief 
statement,  'Case  containing  machinery,'  or  '  hard- 
ware,' etc.,  leaving  to  the  custom-house  officials 
the  task  of  working  out  details  and  calculations. 
Then,  again,  as  regards  languages,  the  British 
commercial  traveller,  armed  with  British  catalogues 
and  price-lists  (although  I  note  with  pleasure  that 
some  are  now  printed  in  Spanish),  knows  no  language 
but  his  own,  but  the  German  invariably  speaks  Spanish 
and  English,  and  he  has  carefully  studied  beforehand 
the  needs  of  the  market  which  he  is  visiting  and  the 
financial  position  of  the  merchants."  It  must  be 
remembered  that  American  (and  doubtless  German) 
critics  make  similar  complaints  of  their  countrymen 
and  hold  up  British  enterprise  to  admiration,  and  also 
that  the  latest  figures  show  that  the  United  Kingdom 
is  holding  her  own  against  Germany,  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  British  merchants  often  lose  ground 
through  slovenly  methods,  and  this  advice,  which, 
mutatis  mutandis,  consular  offices  all  over  the  world 
have  been  sending  out  for  many  years,  ought  to  be 
laid  to  heart  by  all  who  intend  to  do  business  in  South 
America. 

Montevideo  is  an  extremely  clean  city  and  enjoys 
an  excellent  climate.  The  mean  temperature  is  about 
62°  Fahr.,  and  the  annual  rainfall  is  44  inches.  There 
is  a  good  supply  of  water  from  the  Santa  Lucia  River. 
Montevideo  is  by  far  the  chief  port  of  the  Republic. 


URUGUAY  307 

The  bay  was  too  shallow  to  allow  large  ships  to 
approach  within  2j  miles,  so  new  harbour  works 
were  commenced  in  1901  and  are  now  completed. 
They  consist  of  two  long  breakwaters  and  a  basin  and 
docks ;  the  channel  was  dredged,  and  will  now  admit 
vessels  drawing  24^  feet.  There  are  three  large  dry 
docks — Jackson  and  Cibil's,  Gounouilhon,  and  Maua — 
and  their  length  is  450,  300,  and  275  feet  respectively. 
They  were  built  between  1869  and  1874.  In  1912, 
5,562  vessels  of  10,593,958  tons  entered  the  port  of 
Montevideo,  and  5,543  vessels  of  10,535,603  tons 
cleared. 

The  University  is  situated  in  the  Calle  Uruguay ; 
it  has  faculties  of  Law,  Medicine,  Letters,  Mathematics, 
and  Engineering.  Uruguay  cannot  claim  any  great 
eminence  in  literature  and  learning ;  the  fact  that  it 
is  a  comparatively  modern  country  may  account  for 
this  deficiency.  Though  perhaps  inferior  to  all  South 
American  countries  except  Paraguay,  its  history  is  not, 
like  that  Republic,  by  any  means  a  complete  blank. 
The  most  considerable  literary  man  was  Francisco 
Acuna  de  Figueroa  (1790-1862),  who  was  a  facile 
poet.  Another  esteemed  poet,  Adolf o  Berro  (1819-41), 
who  was  cut  off  by  an  untimely  death,  wrote  indignant 
verse  against  slavery.  Jose  Enrique  Rodo  is  an  able 
essayist.  But  the  achievements  of  the  Republic  have 
hitherto  been  small.  There  is  in  Montevideo  a  good 
National  Museum,  which  has  a  useful  collection  of 
Indian  weapons ;  a  gallery  is  devoted  to  Uruguayan 
painters,  and  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  this  art. 

It  is  extremely  easy  to  visit  any  place  in  Uruguay 
owing  to  the  excellent  railway  facilities,  but  there  is 
really  little  to  be  seen ;  at  least  the  estancias,  which  are 
the  one  sight  of  the  country,  will  probably  be  more 
conveniently  viewed  in  Argentina.  There  are  two 


3o8       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

towns  which  are  not  uncommonly  visited — Salto  and 
Paysandu. 

SALTO 

STEAMER  COMMUNICATIONS— Many  steamers,  including  the 
Mihanovich,  connect  Salto  with  Buenos  Aires,  Montevideo, 
and  other  ports.  Above  Salto  the  River  Uruguay  is  un- 
navigable  for  nearly  100  miles.  Salto  is  306  miles  by  water 
from  Buenos  Aires. 

RAILWAYS — Salto  is  served  by  the  Midland  Railway,  which  joins 
the  Central  system  at  Paso  de  los  Toros.  It  is  394  miles 
from  Montevideo  by  land. 

HOTELS — Americano,  Concordia,  Oriental. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— Vice-Consul,  J.  J.  Armstrong. 

NEWSPAPER — Ecos  del  Progreso. 

Salto  is  a  mean-looking  town  ;  its  chief  feature  is  its 
great  saladeros.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  Department 
of  the  same  name,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  district 
completely  devoted  to  pastoral  industries.  The  town 
is  lighted  with  electricity.  There  is  a  population  of 
about  20,000. 

PAYSANDU. 

STEAMER  COMMUNICATIONS — Like    Salto,  various    lines    ply  to 

Buenos  Aires,  Montevideo  and  other  ports. 
RAILWAYS — Paysandu  is  served  by  the  Midland  Railway,  which 

joins  the  Central  system  at  Paso  de  los  Toros. 
HOTELS — Small. 

BRITISH  CONSUL— The  Vice-Consulship  is  vacant. 
NEWSPAPERS — Unimportant. 

Paysandu,  with  a  population  of  20,000,  is  the  capital 
of  a  Department  of  the  same  name.  It  was  founded 
in  1771  by  Father  (Pay)  Sandu,  who  was  engaged  in 
converting  the  Charrua  Indians.  At  one  time  it  was 
a  manufacturing  place  of  some  importance,  but  its 
prosperity  was  destroyed  in  the  wars  of  the  mid- 
nineteenth  century.  In  these  troubled  times  two 


URUGUAY  309 

Scotchmen,  Mundell  and  McEachan,  held  the  position 
of  Intendente,  and  did  good  service  in  pacifying  the 
country.  There  are  many  estancias  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, which  is  a  rich  pastoral  district.  Paysandu  is 
famous  in  the  meat  trade,  especially  for  tongues. 

While  in  this  neighbourhood,  it  is  probable  that  the 
traveller  will  wish  to  visit  Fray  Bentos,  one  of  the 
principal  seats  of  the  great  Lemco  industry.  It  may 
be  noted  that  Salto,  Paysandu,  and  Fray  Bentos  can 
be  visited  quite  as  easily  from  Buenos  Aires  as  from 
Montevideo.  Fray  Bentos,  which  is  a  rising  place, 
was  the  first  scene  of  the  operations  of  Liebig,  in  1865, 
and  although  this  factory  is  now  surpassed  by  that  of 
Colon  and  Entre  Rios,  Fray  Bentos  is  of  immense 
importance,  and  slaughters  not  much  less  than  200,000 
animals  yearly.  By  far  the  favourite  animal  here  is 
the  Hereford,  although  some  Aberdeen  Angus  are 
imported. 

As  has  been  said,  there  are  few  places  of  striking 
interest  in  Uruguay.  There  will  be  little  temptation 
to  visit  Revira  or  any  of  the  frontier  towns,  but  possibly 
occasion  may  be  taken  to  visit  the  pretty  little  towa  of 
Mercedes,  on  the  Rio  Negro.  An  interesting  place  in 
this  neighbourhood  is  Colonia  Suiza,  near  Mai  Abrigo, 
devoted  to  dairy-farming,  with  a  population  of  4,000 
Swiss.  Mr.  Koebel  says :  "In  the  three  Spanish- 
speaking  Republics  of  Argentina,  Uruguay  and  Para- 
guay that,  together  with  Southern  Bolivia,  formed  the 
old  River  Plate  provinces,  exist  distinct  and  important 
settlements  of  Swiss,  Austrians,  Poles,  Australians, 
Welsh,  Boers  and  Jews,  besides  numerous  lesser 
groups  of  many  nationalities  beyond.  Within  the 
frontiers  of  each  perfect  liberty  obtains  to  continue 
existence  as  it  is  led  in  the  country  from  which  the 
immigrants  came,  and  thus  each  is  provided  with 
its  own  churches  and  institutions." 


310       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

This  colony  was-  first  planted  in  1862. 

On  the  whole,  there  is  much  to  be  said  for  the  plan 
of  making  Buenos  Aires  the  headquarters  from  the 
first,  and  visiting  Montevideo  and  other  Uruguayan 
towns  thence.  It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to 
omit  Uruguay  altogether. 

Till  recently  Uruguay  was  treated  somewhat  cavalierly  by 
travellers,  who  gave  it  but  a  hasty  glance  before  passing  on  to 
the  description  of  Argentina.  Now  it  has  the  honour  of  an 
excellent  work  to  itself  in  the  South  American  Series  by 
Mr.  Koebel.  Mr.  Martin's  book  contains  some  information  about 
the  Republic. 

Martin,  Percy  F.     Through  Five  Republics.     London,  1905. 
Koebel,  W.  H.    Uruguay.    London,  1911.    South  American  Series. 


VENEZUELA 

THE  Republic  of  Venezuela,  a  large  and  imperfectly 
explored  country  of  about  365,000  square  miles, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the 
east  by  British  Guiana,  on  the  south  by  Brazil,  and  on 
the  west  by  Colombia.  The  population  a  few  years 
ago  was  estimated  at  2,661,569,  the  increase  by  im- 
migration being  insignificant.  There  are  a  Federal 
District,  thirteen  States,  and  five  Territories,  and  more 
than  300,000  of  the  population  are  full-blooded  Indians, 
of  whom  about  a  quarter  are  absolutely  independent. 
In  contrast  with  Colombia  the  urban  population  is 
very  small.  Venezuela  falls  into  three  natural  divisions 
— the  northern  uplands  along  the  coast,  the  central 
plains  or  llanos,  and  the  south-eastern  uplands.  The 
coast  region  is  the  agricultural  zone,  where  almost 
every  product  can  be  raised  according  to  the  elevation  ; 
here  such  towns  as  Venezuela  possesses  are  to  be 
found.  The  vast  plains,  or  llanos,  extend  from  the 
Parima  Mountains  to  the  Orinoco  and  Apure  Rivers  ; 
here  cattle-breeding  is  the  main  industry.  The  forest 
extends  from  the  Upper  Orinoco  to  the  borders  of 
Brazil.  "  Here  the  native  Indian  has  hitherto  been 
comparatively  free  from  the  intrusions  of  the  white 
settler,  and  still  finds  a  congenial  habitat  in  hunting- 
grounds  that  are  seldom  trespassed  upon.  The  com- 
mercial products  of  this  frontier  region  consist  of 
copaiba,  serrapeas,  or  l  Tonca  beans/  vanilla,  mahogany 

313 


314       A   GUIDE  TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  other  cabinet  woods." x  As  is  natural  in  an 
equatorial  country,  the  lower  levels  are  thinly  peopled. 
The  hot  zone,  at  elevations  below  2,000  feet,  has  a 
mean  temperature  of  77°  Fahr.,  and  is,  for  the  most 
part,  unhealthy.  The  temperate  zone,  at  elevations  of 
from  2,000  to  6,000  feet,  has  a  charming  climate,  with 
a  temperature  ranging  from  59°  in  December  and 
January  to  77°  in  April  and  May.  Above  these  heights 
the  climate  is  cold,  and  in  the  Sierra  de  Merida  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow  is  reached. 

The  inhabitants  show  great  racial  variety.  Among 
the  aborigines,  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  totally 
uncivilized,  the  Barre,  Carib,  and  Arawaz  stocks  are 
chiefly  represented.  In  the  uplands  are  to  be  found 
families  of  pure  Spanish  descent — Basque  or  Catalonian 
— but  the  bulk  of  the  civilized  inhabitants  are  Mestizos 
(mixed  Indian  and  Spanish),  and  they  are  seldom 
recruited  by  fresh  European  blood,  for  the  experience 
of  the  German  colony,  which  in  1870  was  roughly 
dispossessed,  has  not  been  encouraging  to  immigrants. 
The  want  of  population  has  always  been  and  will  long 
continue  to  be  a  serious  handicap  to  the  progress  of 
Venezuela. 

The  geology  of  Venezuela  falls  into  three  districts: 

(1)  the  country  south  of  the  Orinoco,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  other  crystalline  rocks ; 

(2)  the  llanos,  which  are  covered  by  deposits  of  the 
Quaternary  age  ;  (3)  the  mountains  of  the  north,  of 
which  the  oldest  rocks  are  granite  and  crystalline. 

The  Orinoco  may  be  said  to  monopolize  the  whole 
river  system  of  Venezuela.  Though  not  of  remarkable 
length,  only  a  limited  number  of  rivers  surpass  it  in 
the  volume  of  its  waters,  and  it  is  said  to  have  436 
tributaries.  Some  are  fed  from  the  Guiana  highlands, 
namely,  the  Caroni-Paragua,  Aro,  Caura,  Cuchivero, 
1  Scruggs,  p.  224. 


VENEZUELA  315 

Stiapure,  Sipapo  and  Ventuari  ;  while  the  Suata, 
Manapere  and  Guaritico  come  from  the  mountains 
in  the  north,  and  the  Apure,  Uricana,  Arauca, 
Capanaparo,  Meta,  Vichada  and  Guiviare  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes.  These  are  themselves  great 
rivers  with  considerable  tributaries.  The  Orinoco 
flows  into  the  sea  through  a  vast  delta,  which  has 
an  area  of  7,000  square  miles.  The  following  figures 
will  show  the  greatness  of  the  Orinoco  : — 

Drainage  area       364,000  square  miles. 

Length        1,450  miles. 

Length  of  navigable  water        ...        4,300     „ 

Mean  discharge  per  second       ...  500,000  cubic  feet. 

At  present  this  magnificent  river  runs  almost  entirely 
to  waste.  There  are  steamers  from  Port  of  Spain, 
Trinidad,  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  chief  river  port  of 
the  Republic,  but  navigation  is  greatly  neglected  ;  if 
attention  were  paid  to  dredging  and  to  clearing  away 
the  shoals  and  bars,  it  would  be  possible  to  develop 
the  resources  of  Venezuela.  The  principal  river  flow- 
ing due  north  is  the  Unane.  The  lakes  are  not  of 
great  importance ;  there  are  numerous  sheets  of  salt 
water  about  the  Maracaibo  Lagoon.  The  Lake  of 
Valencia  is  a  considerable  sheet  of  fresh  water. 

The  flora  of  Venezuela  is  large ;  many  of  the 
vegetable  products  (as  cocoa)  are  of  great  economic 
value,  and  there  are  many  salutary  medicinal  plants. 
As  the  country  is  half  covered  with  forest  the  timber, 
as  might  be  supposed,  is  valuable.  The  mora  is  a 
fine  tree  of  great  size  with  good  timber,  and  the  caoba, 
or  mahogany,  grows  extensively.  Ebony  and  lignum 
vitse  are  common  in  the  State  of  Zulia.  Something 
will  be  said  about  the  vegetable  products  of  Venezuela 
when  its  resources  are  enumerated. 

The    fauna    resembles    that    of    Brazil    and   other 


316       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

neighbouring  countries.  Such  animals  as  the  jaguar 
and  puma  are  common.  There  are  several  species 
of  deer  but  not  in  any  great  variety.  The  monkey 
is  represented  in  great  variety  and  the  spectacled  bear 
is  found  in  the  Andes.  The  otter  is  common.  The 
crocodile  and  the  cayman I  abound  in  the  rivers. 
The  huge  anaconda  lurks  in  -the  marshes  and  by  the 
rivers,  while  the  less  formidable  boa  keeps  to  the 
woods.  As  is  the  case  with  all  parts  of  tropical  South 
America,  the  rattlesnake  is  common  in  Venezuela. 

COMMERCE,  PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

There  are  few  countries,  even  in  South  America, 
which  are  more  imperfectly  developed  than  Venezuela. 
This  is  largely  due  to  badness  of  communication. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  advantages  of  the  Orinoco  are 
neglected,  the  roads  are  bad,  and  the  railways  are  few. 
The  most  important  line  is  the  Bolivar  Railway  Com- 
pany which  runs  from  Tucaras  to  Barquisimento,  with 
a  short  branch  to  Aroa ;  the  total  length  is  only  about 
100  miles.  The  Gran  Ferrocarril  de  Venezuela  is 
slightly  longer  and  runs  from  Caracas  to  Valencia, 
while  the  Venezuela  Central  Railway  connects  the 
capital  with  Santa  Lucia.  Something  will  be  said  of 
these  railways  under  the  headings  of  the  towns.  There 
are  about  560  miles  of  line  in  operation. 

In  1911  the  imports  were  ^3,774,665 
„       „   exports     „      £4,654,996 


1  The  cayman  (Alligator  palpebrosus)  is  the  South  American 
alligator.  Alligators  are  distinguished  from  crocodiles  by  the 
shortness  and  roundness  of  their  muzzle  and  the  inferior  develop- 
ment of  the  web  between  their  toes.  The  North  American 
alligator  (Alligator  Indus')  has  a  broad  snout,  divided  nostril,  and 
partially  webbed  toes.  The  cayman  has  an  undivided  nostril 
and  still  more  rudimentary  webbing  about  the  feet. 


VENEZUELA  317 

The  chief  imports  were  cotton  textiles,  flour,  drugs, 
rice,  butter,  wine,  machinery  and  thread.  The  prin- 
cipal countries  in  the  import  trade  were  : — 

Bolivars 

Great  Britain      27,222,098 

United  States 27,044,344 

Germany 16,559,302 

France 9,624,684 

Holland 6,853,731 

Spain       ...  3.452,593 

Italy  ...  3*094,971 

Up  till  this  year  the  United  States  was  ahead  of  our 
nation.  In  the  export  trade  the  following  countries 
chiefly  figure  : — 

Bolivars 

United  States 36,725,090 

France 31,928,351 

Holland 22,120,264 

Great  Britain 10,714,031 

The  principal  articles  of  export  are  :— 

Bolivars 

Coffee      59,016,625 

Cocoa      18,659,956 

Balata      12,689,473 

Hides       6,049,127 

Gold        ...                                         ...  3,337,886 

Goat  and  kid  skins       2,654,492 

Rubber 2,667,910 

Aigrettes 1,605,423 

Asphalt 1,386,184 

Copper  ore         1,310,400 

Coffee,  it  will  be  seen,  is  by  far  the  largest  product. 
It  grows  best  at  heights  between  2,000  and  7,000  feet ; 
the  Venezuela  coffee  is  superior  to  that  of  Brazil. 
Cocoa  is  indigenous  to  Venezuela,  and  the  Republic 


3i8       A   GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 

produces  about  8,000  tons  annually,  some  of  which  is 
the  best  in  the  world.  It  is  largely  grown  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Caracas,  and  also  about  the  Orinoco 
Delta  and  in  the  region  of  Maracaibo.  Rubber  of 
various  kinds  is  raised  in  large  quantities.  Balata, 
which  is  a  species  of  gutta-percha,  is  more  largely 
produced  than  rubber  proper.  It  is  chiefly  procured 
from  the  State  of  Bolivar  and  the  territory  which  has 
the  somewhat  misleading  name  of  Amazonas.  The 
capital  of  the  latter,  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  is  a 
village  of  about  400  inhabitants.  Both  these  regions 
are  less  known  than  they  were  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, most  of  the  South  American  Republics  having 
"progressed  backwards"  since  they  became  indepen- 
dent. Mr.  Dalton  J  says  :  "  The  Ventuari  is  the  largest 
Venezuelan  tributary  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  yet  the 
300  miles  or  so  of  its  course  are  practically  un- 
known to  Europeans.*  As  far  as  its  valley  has  been 
explored,  alternating  forests  and  savannas  have  been 
found.  Across  there  in  colonial  times  there  was  once 
a  track  uniting  Esmeralda  directly  with  the  Lower 
Orinoco  by  way  of  the  Caura  ;  the  route  lay  up  the 
Padamo  and  then  across  the  head-waters  of  the 
Ventuari  to  the  source  of  the  Erewato,  a  tributary  of 
the  Caura.  Along  this  road  there  was  a  chain  of  forts, 
but  the  cruelties  of  the  soldiers  at  last  led  the  Indians 
to  unite  for  their  extermination,  and  Humboldt  tells  us 
that  every  man  in  their  5o-league-long  chain  of  forts 
was  slain  one  night  in  1776.  The  Indians  told  him 
that  by  this  road  it  was  10  days  from  Esmeralda 
to  the  head-waters  of  the  Ventuari,  and  2  days 
thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Erewato."  Some  day 
the  vast  natural  wealth  of  these  regions  may  be 
utilized. 

Pastoral  products  form  a  considerable  item  in  the 
1  Venezuela,  pp.  231-2. 


VENEZUELA  319 

export   trade.      The    live   stock    has   been   thus   esti- 
mated : — 

Oxen  2,004,257 

Goats  1,667,272 

Pigs  1,618,214 

Horses  191,079 

Asses  312,810 

Sheep 176,668 

Mules  89,186 

The  llanos  form  a  vast  expanse  ;  they  vary  in  utility 
as  cattle-ranches  according  to  the  water  they  receive 
from  the  affluents  of  the  Orinoco.  The  following 
description  shows  them  at  their  best :  "  After  wandering 
for  nearly  three  hours  over  this  monotonous  landscape 
without  compass,  and  guided  only  by  certain  landmarks 
known  to  the  vaqueanos,  we  came  unexpectedly  upon 
the  borders  of  the  Mesa,  which  commands  an  exten- 
sive view  of  the  lower  savannas.  As  if  by  magic  the 
dreary  scene  changed  to  one  of  the  most  glorious 
panoramas  in  existence.  At  our  feet  lay  a  beautiful 
expanse  of  meadow,  fresh  and  smooth  as  the  best 
cultivated  lawn,  with  troops  of  horses  and  countless 
herds  of  cattle  dispersed  all  over  the  plain.  Several 
glittering  ponds,  alive  with  all  varieties  of  aquatic 
birds,  reflected  upon  their  limpid  surface  the  broad- 
leaved  crowns  of  the  fan-palms,  towering  above 
verdant  groves  of  laurel,  amyris,  and  elm-like  robles. 
Farther  beyond,  and  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  the 
undulating  plain  appeared  like  a  petrified  ocean,  after 
the  sweeping  tempest."  I 

Before  the  revolution  the  cattle  of  Venezuela  were 
far  more  numerous  than  they  have  ever  been  since, 
but  in  the  course  of  the  long  war  with  the  Spaniards 
most  of  the  animal  wealth  of  the  country  was  destroyed. 

1  R.  Paez.     Travels  and  Adventures,  pp.  27-8. 


320       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  llaneros  were  among  the  bravest  of  the  troops 
composing  Bolivar's  victorious  army.  Subsequently 
civil  wars  retarded  the  recovery  of  the  industry,  and, 
though  it  employs  60,000  persons,  it  is  carried  on 
unscientifically.  With  more  capital  and  better  com- 
munications the  industry  should  do  well.  A  factory 
for  killing  cattle  and  chilling  meat  has  been  established 
at  Puerto  Cabello,  and  doubtless  an  export  trade  will 
soon  be  built  up. 

Sugar  can  be  grown  anywhere  in  Venezuela  ;  the 
chief  districts  are  Maracaibo  and  Caracas.  Here  again 
the  methods  are  antiquated  and  most  of  the  produce 
is  crude  sugar  (papelon),  which  is  eaten  by  the  peasants. 
The  industry  has  lately  suffered  a  heavy  blow  by  the 
establishment  of  a  Government  monopoly  in  rum. 
Tobacco  and  cotton  are  grown,  but  the  small  pro- 
duction might  be  greatly  increased. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Republic  is  very  large. 
Gold  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Yuruari  Territory.  It  is 
the  commodity  which  first  gave  fame  to  Venezuela, 
and  the  most  noted  goldfield  is  El  Callao,  which 
in  1886  produced  177,000  ounces  of  gold,  but  it  is 
now  little  worked.  A  good  many  gold-mines  are 
still  at  work  and  the  produce  remains  large.  Copper 
ore  exists  in  many  places,  and  there  is  a  large  mine 
in  the  State  of  Yaracuy.  Silver  and  iron  also  occur, 
and  much  salt  is  mined.  Asphalt  is  a  very  important 
product,  and  comes  principally  from  the  Bermudez 
Lake,  near  the  Guanoco  River.  In  1908  over  37,588 
tons  of  asphalt  were  exported. 

The  manufactures  of  Venezuela  are  small.  There 
are  several  cotton  factories  at  Valencia,  chocolate  is 
made  in  Caracas,  and  at  both  these  towns,  as  well 
as  at  Puerto  Cabello  and  Maracaibo,  there  are 
breweries.  Matches  are  made  for  the  Government 
monopoly.  Small  as  these  manufactures  are,  they 


VENEZUELA  321 

would  not  exist  at  all  but  for  extravagant  protection, 
which  enables  them  to  make  a  profit.  Duties  in 
Venezuela  are  above  the  South  American  average, 
which  is  not  low ;  and  it  is  officially  reported  that 
there  is  no  demand  for  any  but  the  most  costly  brands 
of  champagne,  the  duty  being  so  high  that  the  cost 
of  the  article  is  insignificant  in  comparison. 

Venezuela  is  industrially  backward,  but  probably 
less  so  than  Colombia,  and  there  are  certainly  pro- 
mising opening  for  capitalists. 

CURRENCY 

The  bolivar  is  equal  to  the  franc.  The  coinage 
is  fortunately  on  a  gold  basis,  and  some  gold  and 
silver  is  in  circulation.  The  British  sovereign  is 
received  at  a  small  premium. 

CONSTITUTION 

The  constitution  dates  from  1909.  The  President 
is  elected  by  Congress  for  four  years  and  is  assisted 
by  a  Council  of  Government  of  ten  members,  one 
from  every  two  States.  There  is  also  a  Cabinet  of 
seven  members.  Congress  consists  of  a  Senate  of 
40  members  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  which 
one  member  is  returned  for  every  35,000  inhabitants. 
Venezuela  presents  several  points  in  which  its  con- 
stitution differs  from  the  average  South  American 
Constitution,  and  further  it  is  a  federation  ;  the  States 
are  autonomous. 

FINANCE 

In  1912-13  the  estimated  revenue        was  $2,500,000  bolivars 
„  „  expenditure    „    52,500,000        „ 

The  debt  of  Venezuela  has  given  much  trouble  to 

Y 


322       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

foreign  creditors,  but  a  more  or  less  satisfactory 
arrangement  was  made  in  1905.  Considerable  reduc- 
tions have  been  made  in  the  debt  of  late  years.  The 
external  debt  amounts  to  126,711,537  bolivars,  the 
internal  debt  to  62,587,001  bolivars. 


HISTORY 

In  1498  Columbus  on  his  third  voyage  sighted  the 
coast  of  Venezuela,  and  the  next  year  Alonso  de  Ojeda 
made  his  way  into  the  Lagoon  of  Maracaibo,  where, 
being  struck  by  the  likeness  of  the  shallow  coastal 
waters  to  Venice,  he  called  the  place  Venezuela,  or 
Little  Venice — a  name  which  gradually  attached  itself 
to  the  whole  region.  For  many  years  the  coast  was 
a  prey  to  adventurers,  whose  cruelties  were  so  great  as 
to  scandalize  public  opinion  in  Spain  ;  but  gradually 
more  responsible  settlers  penetrated  inland,  founding 
Valencia  in  1555  and  Caracas  in  1567,  near  to  which 
the  port  of  La  Guiara  was  soon  established,  and 
Venezuela  became  an  important  place  for  trade  (chiefly 
contraband)  and  for  the  legend  that  its  hinterland 
contained  El  Dorado,  a  land  where  gold  was  the 
commonest  of  metals.  The  story  was  believed  by 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who,  as  is  well  known,  made  an 
attack  upon  the  Spaniards  in  hope  of  gaining  gold. 
Many  buccaneers  were  also  attracted  to  Venezuela, 
and  Caracas,  Maracaibo  and  other  towns  were 
periodically  sacked.  A  more  severe  blow  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  district  than  these  casual  depreda- 
tions was  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  from  which 
the  Venezuelan  trade  took  a  long  time  to  recover. 
Hampered  both  by  the  restrictive  policy  of  Spain 
and  their  dependency  upon  the  Viceroyalty  of  New 
Granada  (Colombia),  the  Creoles  became  discontented, 


VENEZUELA  323 

and  in  1777  the  system  of  monopoly  was  abolished 
and  Venezuela  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  Captaincy- 
General.  But  these  concessions  came  too  late  to 
avert  the  revolutionary  spirit  which,  in  the  end, 
detached  practically  all  the  colonies  from  Spain. 

In  1808,  when  news  came  of  the  expulsion  of 
Ferdinand  of  Spain  by  Napoleon's  orders,  the  Vene- 
zuelans refused  to  accept  French  rule  and  for  a 
long  time  wavered  between  loyalty  to  Spain  and 
independence.  Eventually  Venezuela  was  the  first 
of  all  the  South  American  Republics  to  declare  its 
independence,  which  step  was  taken  on  July  5,  1811. 
But  there  was  a  strong  reaction,  and  Monteverde, 
fighting  vigorously  for  Spain,  had  practically,  sup- 
pressed the  revolution,  when  Bolivar,  the  famous 
general  and  patriot  of  Caracas,  came  upon  the  scene. 
The  story  of  his  wonderful  struggle  and  his  triumph 
over  apparently  insuperable  obstacles  belongs  to  the 
history  of  the  world.  It  will  here  suffice  to  say  that 
on  June  23,  1821,  with  the  help  of  the  British  legion, 
he  shattered  the  power  of  Spain  in  the  decisive  battle 
of  Carabobo,  and  in  November,  1823,  with  the  capture 
of  Puerto  Cabello  the  last  vestige  of  Spanish  dominion 
vanished  from  Venezuela.  Bolivar  had  hoped  for 
a  great  Colombian  Union,  including  Colombia,  Vene- 
zuela, and  Ecuador,  and  this  combination  existed 
for  a  time,  but  the  Liberator's  hopes  of  order  and 
freedom  were  disappointed.  Venezuela  withdrew  from 
the  Union  in  1829,  and  shortly  afterwards  Bolivar, 
the  greatest  of  all  Venezuelans,  died  a  disappointed 
man,  full  of  gloomy  forebodings  for  his  country  and 
the  other  Republics  which  he  had  helped  to  make 
independent.  For  some  time  Venezuela  enjoyed 
moderate  tranquillity,  principally  under  the  guidance 
of  the  soldier  patriot,  General  Paez,  but  in  1846 
civil  war  broke  out  and  trouble  continued  up  to  1873, 


324       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

when  Guzman  Blanco  became  Dictator  and  ruled 
with  a  mixture  of  tyranny  and  wisdom  till  1889. 
Although  he  amassed  a  great  fortune  by  oppressive 
taxation,  he  kept  the  country  at  peace,  maintained 
order,  built  500  miles  of  railways,  and  gave  the 
Republic  the  blessing  of  a  stable  currency,  which  it 
still  enjoys.  His  long  dictatorship  was  undoubtedly 
beneficial.  The  people,  however,  having  grown  tired 
of  his  paternal  rule,  overthrew  it,  and  after  another 
period  of  confusion  the  notorious  Castro  came  to 
the  front  in  1899,  and  in  1902  was  elected  President- 
Dictator  for  six  years.  He  did  not  succeed  in  per- 
petuating his  rule  like  Guzman,  for,  having  embroiled 
the  Republic  with  various  foreign  Powers  and  raised 
many  domestic  enemies,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Europe  in  1908,  and  his  efforts  to  reinstate  himself 
were  unsuccessful.  Since  his  retirement  affairs  have 
been  tolerably  tranquil.  A  new  constitution  was 
formulated  in  1909,  and  the  next  year  General  Juan 
Vicente  Gomez  was  elected  President. 

In  recent  history  the  most  important  of  Venezuelan 
events  was  the  boundary  dispute  with  England.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  were 
considerable  gold  discoveries  between  the  Orinoco  and 
the  Essequibo,  which  were  in  British  Guiana.  Vene- 
zuela, however,  objected  to  see  the  territory  exploited 
and  policed  by  the  Colonial  Government,  and  declared 
that  it  belonged  to  her,  on  the  ground  that  Spain  in 
1845  had  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Venezuela 
and  had  renounced  in  her  favour  all  rights  formerly 
enjoyed  by  Spain  in  the  territory  known  as  the 
Captaincy-General  of  Venezuela.  This  claim  would 
have  included  the  whole  colony  of  British  Guiana. 
The  Government  of  British  Guiana,  of  course,  main- 
tained its  rights,  and  considerable  friction  arose 
between  Venezuela  and  England,  in  the  course 


VENEZUELA  325 

of  which  the  latter  made  larger  claims  under  the 
Schomburgk  line.  In  1895  came  the  interference 
of  the  United  States,  which  led  to  dangerous  tension. 
It  was  not  a  proper  subject  for  arbitration,  seeing  that, 
except  for  a  mere  fraction,  all  the  territory  in  dispute 
clearly  belonged  to  British  Guiana.  However,  the 
matter  was  referred  to  a  tribunal  of  two  English,  two 
United  States,  and  one  Russian  jurists,  and  in  1899 
the  decision  was  given.  The  tribunal  decided  upon 
a  boundary  line  that  was  nearly  identical  with  the 
Schomburgk,  although  Venezuela  received  a  small 
piece  of  territory  west  of  that  line.  The  event  was 
no  doubt  satisfactory,  but  to  arbitrate  on  territory 
that  was  indubitably  part  of  the  Colony  was  a  bad 
precedent. 

LA  GUIARA 

STEAMSHIP  LINES — The  Harrison  and  Leyland  Line  maintains 
a  10  days'  service  from  Liverpool  to  La  Guiara.  They  then 
proceed  to  New  York.  The  French  Compagnie  Trans- 
atlantique  calls  both  on  out  and  home  voyages  to  Colon. 
Other  foreign  lines  are  the  German  Hamburg-America,  the 
Italian  La  Veloce,  the  Spanish  Compania  Transatlantica 
and  a  Dutch  line.  The  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  by 
Venezuelan  lines,  the  chief  being  the  Nacional.  Passengers 
from  England  can  go  by  the  Royal  Mail  to  Trinidad  and 
then  proceed  to  La  Guiara  by  a  foreign  line.  The  United 
States  Red  "  D  "  Line  has  a  fortnightly  service  to  New  York. 
The  coasting  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  native  vessels.  The 
distance  to  England  is  about  4,760  miles,  and  the  voyage  by 
way  of  Trinidad  takes  about  21  days. 

RAILWAYS — There  is  a  line — La  Guiara  and  Caracas  Railway 
Company — to  Caracas,  28  miles  in  length.  The  fare  is  zos. 
There  is  also  a  short  line  of  about  3  miles  to  Macuto. 

HOTEL— There  is  one  fairly  good  hotel  at  8s.  a  day. 

BRITISH  CONSUL — Vice-Consul,  M.  Brewer. 

BANKS — Banco  de  Venezuela,  Banco  de  Caracas. 

NEWSPAPER— El  Heraldo. 

This  little  town,  with  a  population  of  8,500,  is  the 


326       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH    AMERICA 

port  of  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela.  The  best 
time  for  a  visit  is  between  December  and  April.  The 
temperature  (Fahr.)  is  given  as  91°  (maximum),  71-60° 
(minimum),  and  79°  (mean),  but  these  figures  are 
probably  flattering,  as  La  Guiara  has  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  hottest  places  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  It  is,  however,  healthy,  and  malaria  seldom 
occurs.  Before  1887  there  was  practically  no  harbour; 
it  was  an  open  roadstead,  exposed  to  the  Atlantic  swell. 
An  English  company  built  a  breakwater  more  than 
2,000  feet  long,  under  whose  shelter  passengers  are 
now  landed  without  much  difficulty.  It  is  second 
among  Venezuelan  ports,  Puerto  Cabello  being  the 
first.  At  Macuto,  a  small  seaside  resort  about  3 
miles  distant,  which  is  connected  with  the  port  by 
a  short  railway,  there  is  a  fair  hotel.  The  heat  is 
least  oppressive  between  December  and  April. 

CARACAS 

RAILWAYS — The  La  Guiara  and  Caracas  Railway  connects  the 
port  with  the  capital.  A  correspondent  of  the  Times  recently 
wrote  :  "  It  is  now  possible,  if  the  arrival  at  La  Guiara  takes 
place  in  the  early  morning,  to  hurry  through  the  Customs, 
and  to  go  forward  to  Caracas  by  the  first  train  at  8  a.m. 
Though  the  distance  thither  is  only  about  8  miles  as  the 
crow  flies,  the  narrow-gauge  railway,  the  property  of  an 
English  company,  traverses  no  less  than  28  miles  in  accom- 
plishing the  journey.  The  track,  which  winds  in  and  out 
with  steep  gradients  and  sharp  curves  against  the  mountain- 
side, and  glides  through  numerous  tunnels  and  over  terraces, 
piled  one  above  the  other,  cut  through  the  rocks,  presents 
many  features  of  interest,  and  when  half  the  distance  has  been 
covered,  La  Guiara  is  seen  lying  apparently  just  below  the 
line.  Silla,  which  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  mountain  range, 
is  stated  to  be  9,000  feet  in  height,  but  the  site  of  the  city 
lies  at  a  height  of  3,000  feet,  on  a  moderate  slope  facing  the 
south,  far  below  the  summit."  The  Gran  Ferrocarril  de 
Venezuela  also  connects  Caracas  with  Valencia,  a  distance 


VENEZUELA  327 

of  about  1 10  miles.    The  Central  Railway  of  Venezuela  has 

a  line  of  48  miles  to  Santa  Teresa. 
HOTELS— The  Klindt  is  the  best  hotel  in  Caracas ;  the  charges 

are  about  125.  6d.  a  day. 
BRITISH  CONSUL — British  Minister,  F.  D.  Harford  ;  Vice-Consul, 

G.  G.  Smith. 
BANKS  —  Commercial    Bank    of    Spanish    America,    Banco    de 

Venezuela,  Banco  de  Caracas. 
NEWSPAPERS — El  Tunipo,  El  Universal,  Gaceta  Official,  El  Cojo, 

Ilustrado  (bi-weekly). 

Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela,  has  a  population 
of  85,000.  It  was  founded  in  1567  by  Diego  de 
Losada,  and  soon  became  the  most  important  town 
in  the  district.  In  1595  it  was  sacked  by  the  English 
buccaneer  Amyas  Preston,  and  finally  burned,  because 
the  Spaniards  would  not  pay  the  ransom  demanded. 
In  1679  it  was  pillaged  by  the  French.  The  history 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  uneventful.  In  1812 
it  was  almost  destroyed  by  a  terrible  earthquake.  It 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolutionary  wars  and 
the  tumults  which  have  been  common  since  that 
time. 

The  city  is  well  laid  out,  but  the  straightness  of 
the  streets  is  somewhat  monotonous.  There  are  three 
spacious  Plazas — the  Bolivar,  the  Washington,  and 
the  Miranda.  The  Independencia  Park  is  very  beautiful. 
Several  of  the  public  buildings  possess  considerable 
interest.  The  Capitol  is  a  huge  block  of  buildings 
grouped  round  a  patio.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
Congress  House  and  Government  offices.  Here  are 
a  number  of  portraits  of  the  revolutionary  leaders 
and  pictures  representing  scenes  from  the  revolutionary 
wars.  There  is  a  fine  painting  of  Bolivar  addressing 
the  Congress  of  Angostura,  and  there  are  three  por- 
traits of  the  Liberator  which  are  known  to  be  faithful 
likenesses.  The  National  Museum,  which  is  extremely 


328       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

ill  kept,  is  housed  in  one  of  the  buildings  of  the 
University.  There  is  a  good  National  Library  in  the 
Plaza  Bolivar.  The  Pantheon  is  closely  modelled 
upon  its  Parisian  namesake,  even  to  the  extent  of 
having  once  been  a  place  of  worship.  Bolivar  and 
others  of  the  revolutionary  warriors  are  buried  here, 
and  many  of  them  are  represented  by  good  marble 
statues.  The  Cathedral  looks  handsome  from  a  dis- 
tance, but  it  is  in  poor  condition ;  it  contains  a 
painting  of  the  Last  Supper  by  the  Venezuelan  artist 
Michelena. 

Caracas  has  an  ancient  University,  but  education 
in  Venezuela  is  not  in  a  very  flourishing  condition. 
The  Republic,  however,  takes  a  high  place  in  litera- 
ture ;  some  consider  that  the  two  natives  of  Caracas 
Bolivar  and  Bello  were  the  two  greatest  men  whom 
South  America  has  produced.  The  philosopher-poet 
Andres  Bello  (1781-1865)  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 
considerable  figures  in  South  America,  not  only  for 
his  poetry,  which  ranks  him  with  Olmeda,  but  also 
for  the  immense  influence  which  he  exercised  upon 
contemporary  thought.  He  joined  in  the  revolutionary 
movement,  and  in  1810  was  sent  in  an  official  capacity 
to  England  with  the  object  of  attracting  English 
sympathy  to  the  revolted  colonies,  and  here  he  had 
much  intercourse  with  James  Mill  and  other  philo- 
sophic Radicals. 

He  remained  in  England  for  nineteen  years. 
The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  Chile,  where  he 
became  Rector  of  the  University.  He  was  un- 
doubtedly the  most  accomplished  man  whom  Spanish 
America  has  produced.  He  is  the  author  of  one  of 
the  best  of  Spanish  grammars,  and  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  study  of  philology.  His 
Principles  of  International  Law  is  a  work  of  high 
authority,  and  he  takes  a  high  rank  in  philosophy  for 


VENEZUELA  329 

his  Theory  of  the  Understanding.  Although  he  follows 
James  Mill  to  a  large  extent  and  generally  was  a 
preacher  of  liberalism,  he  did  not  follow  his  master 
in  his  materialism,  and  was,  like  many  Utilitarians, 
a  firm  believer  in  religion.  His  numerous  intellectual 
interests  did  not  serve  to  dissipate  his  genius,  nor 
did  his  poetry  suffer  from  his  philosophy,  for  his 
poems,  of  which  the  best  were  written  during  his 
youth  in  England,  are  likely  to  last  as  long  as  the 
Spanish  language.  He  is  one  of  the  purest  of 
Spanish  writers  and  followed  classical  models,  as  all 
readers  of  Horace  will  notice  from  the  first  lines  of 
his  imitation  : — 

Que  nuevas  esperanzas 
Al  mar  te  llevan  ?     Torna, 
Torna,  atrevida  nave, 
A  la  nativa  costa. 

His  chief  work  is  Silva  Americana,  in  which,  like 
Virgil,  he  sings  the  rural  charm  of  his  native  land — 
the  innumerable  herds  grazing  the  llano,  which  stretches 
to  the  mountains  white  with  everlasting  snow : — 

Greges  van  sin  cuento 

Paciendo  tu  verdura,  desde  el  llano 

Que  tiene  por  el  lindero  el  horizonte, 

Hasta  el  erguido  monte, 

De  inaccessible  nive  siempre  cano. 

Critics  almost  unanimously  give  him  the  first  place 
among  Spanish-American  poets,  and  his  place  is  all 
the  more  secure  because,  like  Olmedo,  he  differs 
from  the  bards  of  those  nations  in  his  restraint  and 
calm.  "Majestic"  is  one  of  the  epithets  most  fre- 
quently applied  to  him. 

Another  poet  of  some  note  was  Rafael  Maria  Baralt 
(i 810-60).  He  became  a  Spaniard  and  died  in 


330       A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Madrid.  He  modelled  himself  upon  Bello,  and  his 
Cristobal  Colon  was  received  with  great  applause,  but 
his  lyrics  have  a  tendency  to  be  frigid.  Jose  Heriberto 
Garcia  de  Quevedo  was  an  ambitious  writer  with  a 
strong  belief  in  his  own  immortality.  He  was  a 
philosophical  poet  of  considerable  merit,  and,  like 
Baralt,  acquired  Spanish  nationality,  being  an  enthusi- 
astic royalist.  He  was  killed  during  the  communist 
outbreak  in  Paris.  The  Venezuelans,  even  more  than 
other  Spanish-American  men  of  letters,  studiously 
avoided  living  in  their  own  country. 

Rufino  Blanco  Fombona,  besides  being  a  poet,  is 
a  novelist  and  has  written  brilliant  sketches  of  Vene- 
zuelan life.  The  poets  and  literary  men  of  Venezuela 
are  very  numerous,1  and  if  Caracas  is  not  as  cele- 
brated a  seat  of  culture  as  Bogota,  the  Venezuelans, 
even  though  not,  perhaps,  owing  much  to  Venezuela, 
may  claim  greater  genius. 

Apart  from  Caracas,  the  towns  of  Venezuela  do  not 
offer  very  much  interest,  although  for  the  traveller  and 
explorer  there  is  a  fine  field  in  the  Republic.  The 
second  city  is  Valencia  (Hotel  Comercio,  Hotel  Uni- 
versal), with  a  population  of  54,000,  which  was  founded 

in  1555- 

It  is  in  miles  from  the  capital  and  is  situated  in 
the  most  fertile  part  of  the  Republic.  Its  elevation  is 
1,577  fee*  arjove  the  sea-level,  and  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  80°  Fahr.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Republic  it  was  a  seat  of  Government  and  remains  a 
flourishing  agricultural  centre,  while  several  cotton- 
mills  have  been  established,  and  it  is,  indeed,  indus- 
trially ahead  of  Caracas.  There  is  a  large  Cathedral, 
which,  however,  has  no  remarkable  features. 

The  situation  of  Valencia,  on  the  lake,  is  delightful. 
1  See  a  chapter  in  Souvenirs  de  Venezuela,  by  Jenny  de  Tallenay. 


VENEZUELA  331 

Some  33  miles  from  Valencia  is  its  port,  Puerto 
Cabello  (Hotel  des  Bains,  Hotel  de  France),  which 
possesses  the  best  harbour  in  Venezuela  ;  the  towns 
are  connected  by  a  railway.  The  population  is  13,000- 
Apparently  it  is  one  of  the  least  healthy  of  Venezuelan 
towns,  having  a  death-rate  of  42  per  thousand.  The 
ships  visiting  Puerto  Cabello  are  much  the  same  as 
those  at  La  Guiara. 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  the  numerous  other 
small  ports  on  the  coast  and  round  the  so-called  Lake 
Maracaibo,  whence  much  coffee  is  shipped,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  most  of  them  are  connected  with  the 
interior  by  short  railways. 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (Hotel  Chiarelli,  Hotel  Union) 
handles  the  trade  of  the  Orinoco  and  runs  a  passen- 
ger service  to  Trinidad ;  the  boats  are  comfortable 
and  the  food  is  good.  The  city  is  built  on  granite, 
which  aggravates  the  heat,  and  the  mean  temperature 
is  86°  Fahr.  A  more  pleasant  place  to  visit,  except  for 
its  inaccessibility,  is  Merida  (Hotel  Briceno),  a  Uni- 
versity and  Cathedral  town,  which  lies  among  the 
mountains  at  a  height  of  5,450  feet.  In  fact,  Venezuela 
does  not  urgently  demand  very  much  time,  and  a  visit 
to  Caracas  will  probably  satisfy  most  people.  Some 
day,  however,  it  should  be  a  great  country. 

Venezuela  is  one  of  the  volumes  in  the  South  American  Series  ; 
the  book,  by  Mr.  R.  V.  Dalton,  has  an  excellent  bibliography.  The 
other  works  are,  for  the  most  part,  somewhat  old,  but  as  the 
country  does  not  change  much,  the  records  of  travellers,  some  of 
them  very  well  written,  are  often  of  value. 

Dalton,  L.  V.    Venezuela.    London,  1912.    South  American  Series. 
Andre,  E.     A  Naturalist  in  the  Guianas.     London,  1904. 
Scruggs,    W.     L.      The  Colombian    and    Venezuelan   Republics. 

Boston,  Mass.,  1904. 
Paez,    R.     Travels  and  Adventures  in  South  and  Central  America. 

New  York,  1868. 


INDEX 


Aconcagua  (Mountain),  27, 156 

(River),  76 
Aguadas,  189 
Akers,  24,  76 
Albemarle,  219 
Alcock,  24 
Alcorta,  48 
Alencar,  136 
Alfaro,  211 
Aliaga,  285 
Alves,  123 

Amazon,  19,  81,  143,  212 
America,  Central,  n 
Andes,  27,  31,  79,  194, 156,  157 
Andres,  331 
Antioquia,  190-2 
Antofagasta,  88,  166,  177 
Araucanians,  163 
Arequipa,  4,  9,  89,  268-9,  277-8 
Argentina — 

Bahia  Blanca,  61-2 

Buenos  Aires,  49-59 

Climate,  29 

Coinage,  43-4 

Constitution,  49 

Cordoba,  67-9 

Fauna,  31-2 

Finance,  44 

Flora,  31 

Geology,  31-2 

History,  44-9 

Iguazu  Falls,  71-2 


Argentina — 

Immigration,  32-5 
La  Plata,  59,  60 
Literature,  57-9 
Mar  del  Plata,  61 
Physical  Features,  27-8 
Products  and  Industries,  35- 

4i 

Railways,  41-3 

Rivers,  29,  30 

Rosario,  64-7 

Tucuman,  69-70 
Artigas,  301 

Asuncion,  2,  45,  71,  252-3 
Atahualpa,  272 
Atrato,  187 

Baedeker,  56 

Bahia,  i,  8,  12,  no,  in,  127-9 

Bahia  Blanca,  3,  28,  29,  42,  50, 

61-3 

Banks,  24 
Baralt,  329 
Barclay,  3,  155 
Barranquilla,  189,  197 
Barrett,  24 
Barros,  123 
Bates,  150 

Bello,  148-9,  175,  328 
Beni,  84,  87 
Bermejo,  30 
Berro,  307 

333 


334        A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 


Billinghurst,  276 

Bingham,  201 

Biobio,  157, 164,  170 

Blancos,  302,  303 

Boa  Vista,  127 

Bogota,  186, 188,  189,  198-201 

Bolivar,  323 

Bolivia — 

Climate,  81-2 

Cochabamba,  94-5 

Coinage,  85 

Constitution,  86 

Fauna,  83 

Finance,  85-6 

Flora,  82 

Geology,  82 

History,  86-8 

La  Paz,  88-92 

Literature,  91-2 

Products     and     Industries, 

83-5 

Railways,  81-2 

Sucre,  92-4 

Booth  Line,  n,  12,  144 
Borda,  302 
Boulogne,  12,  14 
Bourgade,  254 
Brazil- 
Amazonian  Region,  143-7 

Bahia,  127-9 

Climate,  101 

Commerce     and     Products, 
102-11 

Constitution     and     History, 
115-26 

Fauna,  102 

Finance  and  Revenue,  112 

Flora,  101-2 

Geology,  101 

Immigration,  114-15 

Literature,  135-6 

Money  and  Exchange,  111-12 

Pernambuco,  126-7 


Brazil — 

Physical  Features,  99-101 

Porto  Alegre,  141-3 

Railways,  112-14 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  129-37 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  140-1 

Santos,  139-40 

Sao  Paulo,  139-40 
Bristol,  n,  235 
British  Guiana,  324 
Buenaventura,  192,  201 
Buenos  Aires  (City),  2,  3,  6,  7,  9, 
n,   12,   14,  28,   30,   49-59, 
161,  252,  273 

(Province),  32,  42 
Bunau-Varilla,  223,  225 
Burton,  64,  66,   109,  121,  149- 

51,  249,  250,  252,  254 
Bustamente,  91 

Cabot,  44,  247 

Caldera,  177 

Calderon,  285 

Cali,  189,  264,  271 

Callao,  4,  278 

Calvo,  57-8 

Carabobo,  323 

Caracas,  320,  322-3,  326-30 

Carlyle,  249 

Cartagena,  n,  189,  194-8 

Casabona,  151 

Casement,  266 

Castro,  324 

Cattelle,  151 

Cauca,  187,  190-1 

Caxias,  122 

Ceara,  12,  99,  147 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  4,  258, 264,  268, 

269,  298 
Chagres,  226-7 
Charles  V,  221 
Charruas,  300,  308 
Cherbourg,  n 


INDEX 


335 


Chile— 

Antofagasta,  177 

Arica,  181 

Climate,  154 

Concepcion,  169-70 

Constitution,  162 

Coquimbo,  176-7 

Fauna,  158 

Finance,  162 

Flora,  157-8 

Geology,  156 

History,  163-7 

Money,  161 

Mountains,  156-7 

Nitrate,  176-81 

Physical  Features,  153-5 

Punta  Arenas,  167-8 

Railways,  161-2 

Santiago,  173-6 

Trade    and    Products,    158- 
60 

Valdivia,  168-9 

Valparaiso,  170-3 
Chimborazo,  4,  203 
Chubut,  34 

(River),  30 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  331 
Climate,  19 
Cochabamba,  81,  94-5 
Cocoa,  107,  207,  317 
Coffee,  103-6,  138, 190,  263,  267, 

317-18 
Colombia — 

Barranquilla,  196-7 

Bogota,  198-201 

Cartagena,  197-8 

Climate,  186 

Commerce     and     Products, 
189-91 

Constitution,  193 

Fauna,  188 

Finance,  192-3 

Flora,  1 88 


Colombia — 

Geology,  186 

History,  193-6 

Literature,  200-1 

Mountains,  186-7 

Railways,  191-2 

Rivers,  187 

Santa  Marta,  198 
Colon,   5,   8,  n,  12,   214,   221, 

235-6 
Colonia,  300 

Colorados,  302-3 
Concepcion,  169-70 
Consuls,  17,  18 
Conway,  80,  89,  91,  96 
Copiapo,  177 
Copper,  159,  264 
Coquimbo,  154,  160,  176-7 
Cordoba,  3,  29,  42,  67-9 
1  Cornish,  226,  236 
Corral,  168 
Corrientes,  30,  71 
Coruna,  n,  14 
Cotopaxi,  203 
Cuenca,  219 

Cunninghame-Graham,  254 
Customs,  17 
Cuzco,  267,  278 

Dal  ton,  318,  331 

Darwin,  29,   153,  274,   279-80, 

301 

Davis,  224 
Denis,  150 
Deseado,  30 
Diamantina,  no,  149 
Diamonds,  no-n 
Dias,  135 
Dolce,  30 

Dom  Pedro  II,  121-3 
Dover,  12 
Drago,  57-8 
Drake,  163,  171,  198 


336        A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 


Echeverria,  59 
Ecuador — 

Coinage,  208 

Constitution,  209 

Fauna,  206 

Finance,  208 

Flora,  206 

Galapagos  Islands,  219-20 

Geology,  205-6 

Guayaquil,  213-16 

History,  209-13 

Literature,  218 

Physical  Features,  203-6 

Products      and     Industries, 
207-8 

Quito,  217-18 

Rivers,  205 
Eder,  201 
Edward  VII,  48 
Edwards,  236 
Elders    and    Fyffes    Line,    12, 

i98>  235 
Elliot,  182 
Emeralds,  190 
Enock,   220,   257-9,   265>    275> 

289-90 

Entre  Rios,  309 
Equipment,  16,  17 
Estrada,  211 
Eten,  288 
Expenses,  9 

Falkland  Islands,  3 
Fallon,  201 
Famatina,  3,  40 
Fawcett,  80,  84 
Fife,  25,  150 
Figuaroa,  307 
Flores,  211 
Fombona,  330 
Fonseca,  123 

France,   102,   158-9,  189,   207, 
262 


Francia,  68,  249-50 

Fraser,  236 

Fray  Bentos,  298,  309 

Galapagos  Islands,  204,  219 
Gallegos,  30 
Gamboa,  228 
Garay,  45,  67 
Gatun,  227-8 
Gauchos,  28,  29 
Germany,  36,  102,   158-9,  189, 
207,      262,      305-6,      314, 

317 

Girardot,  201 
Goethals,  224-5 
Gold,  109,  208,  263 
Gomez,  324 
Gonzaga,  135,  148,  150 
Gorgas,  225 
Goyaz,  99 
Gran,  289 
Grubb,  254 

Guayaquil,  4,  211,  213-16 
Guayas,  214 
Guayra  Falls,  248,  254 
Gutierrez,  J.  M.,  59 
Gutierrez,  J.  R.,  91 
Guzman,  324 

Hale,  23 
Hamburg,  12 
Hamburg-American   Line,    14, 

I96«  235 

Hardenburg,  265-6 
Hassaurek,  220 
Havre,  12 

Hernan  Darias,  45,  300 
Hirst,  76 
Hotels,  7,  14,  15 
Houlder  Line,  12 
Huasco,  177 
Hudson,  31 
Humboldt,  144,  257,  318 


INDEX 


337 


Iguazu  Falls,  3,  30,  71-2,  245, 

253 

Illimani,  80 
Incas,  209,  272 
Iquique,  4,  155,  177-81,  229 
Iquitos,  212,  259 
Isaacs,  20 1 
Isabel,  122 

Jalhay,  201 

Jara,  251 

Jenkins,  46 

Jesuits,  2,  46,  117,  164,  246-8, 

254,  272-3,  300 
Jovellanos,  251 
Jujuy,  70 

Killik,  42 

Koebel,  76,  182,  309-10 

Kosmos  Line,  167,  213,  279 

La  Guiara,  325-6 

Lamport  and  Holt  Line,  7,  12, 

50,  167,  279 
Language,  21-3 
La  Paz,  4,  82-92 
La  Plata,  59-60 
La  Quiaca,  70 
La  Rioja,  29 
La  Rochelle,  n 
Larreta,  58 
La  Serena,  176-7 
Lastarria,  175 
Leguia,  276 
Lemco,  2,  40,  241,  309 
Lesseps,  195,  222,  226 
Leyland  Line,  12,  196,  235 
Lima,  4,    15,  263,   268-9,   273> 

279-86 

Lisbon,  n,  12,  14 
Liverpool,    i,   5,    n,    12,    196, 

229 
Llai  Llai,  76 

z 


Lloyd  Brasileiro  Line,  50,  126, 

144 

Locusts,  29 
Lopez,  249,  251,  253 
Loreto,  212 

MacDonald,  254 

Macedo,  136 

Maceio,  147 

Madeira,  143 

Magdalena,  187,  198-9 

Magellan,  6 

Manaos,  5,  n,  12,  146-7 

Manizales,  189 

Manta,  218 

Marafion,  259,  263 

Mar  del  Plata,  3,  50,  61 

Markham,  289 

Marmol,  58-9 

Martin,  14,  25,  106-7,  227,  278, 

281,  290,  310 
Martinez,  76-7 
Mathews,  93,  95,  96 
Matto  Grosso,  147-8 
Maule,  163 

Mendoza,  4,  29,  38,  50,  72-5 
Mercedes  (Argentina),  42 

(Uruguay),  294 
Meta,  187,  315 
Millican,  190 
Mitre,  58 
Mitre  Law,  43 
Mollendo,  4,  268,  275-7 
Money,  15,  16 
Montt,  166,  167 
Morena,  211 
Muzo,  190 

Napo,  204-5,  2I3>  259 
Negro,  27,  30 
Nelson  Line,  12 
New  Granada,  194,  199 
Newspapers,  21 


338        A    GUIDE   TO    SOUTH    AMERICA 


New  York,  5,  6,  12,  228-9 

Oakenfull,  150 
Ocantos,  58 
O'Higgins,  A.,  164 
O'Higgins,  B.,  165,  170 
Olivade,  284 
Olmedo,  218 
Ordonez,  303 
Oriente,  204,  213 
Orinoco,  314-15,  318-19 
Oroya,  279,  286 
Orton,  220 
Oruro,  80,  82,  89,  95,  177 

Pacasmayo,  258,  288 
Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, i,  6,  7,  10,  50,  126, 
167,  213,  278-9,  288 
Paez,  331 
Paita,  289 
Palma,  285 
Pampas,  28,  30,  31 
Panama,  231-4 
Panama  Canal — 

Colon,  235-6 

History,  221-7 

Hygiene,  225-6 
Panama  hats,  188,  207-8,  289 
Para,  n,  12,  144-6 
Paraguay  Republic — 

Asuncion,  252-3 

Constitution,  246 

Currency  and  Finance,  245 

Fauna,  240-1 

Flora,  240 

History,  246-51 

Iguazu  Falls,  253-4 

Physical  Features,  239-40 

Products     and      Industries, 
241-4 

Railways,  244-5 
Paraguay  River,  30,  239,  254 


Parana  (River),  30,  100,  247-8 

(State),  147 
Pardo,  275-6 
Pasto,  189 

Paysandu,  296,  308-9 
Pedro  I,  121 
Pena,  49 
Penna,  123 

Pennington,  37,  49,  77 
Peru— 

Arequipa,  277-8 

Callao,  278-9 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  287 

Commerce,      Products     and 
Industries,  262-9 

Constitution,  271 

Fauna,  261-2 

Flora,  261 

Geology,  261 

History,  271-6 

Lima,  279-86 

Literature,  284-6 

Money  and  Finance,  269-71 

Paita,  289 

Physical  Features,  257-61 

Railways,  269 

Rivers,  257-9 

Rubber,  264-7 
Petre,  185,  201 
Petropolis,  136 
Pilcomayo,  30 
Pisco,  267-8,  274-5,  278 
Piura,  4,  257,  264 
Pizarro,  163,  272,  280 
Plate,  30 
Plaza,  211 
Pombo,  201 
Port  Limon,  n,  12 
Porto  Alegre,  141-2 
Posadas,  71 
Post  offices,  19 
Potosi,  80,  82,  86-7,  95 
Prescott,  271 


INDEX 


339 


Puente  del  Incas,  4,  75 
Puerto  Bolivar,  208 
Puerto  Cabello,  330-1 
Puerto  Colombia,  196-7 
Puerto  Montt,  161 
Puna,  214 
Puno,  271-8 

Putumayo,  107,  185,  187,  204-5, 
215,  259,  265-6 

Quesado,  194,  199 
Quevedo,  330 
Quintana,  48 
Quito,  209-10,  217-18 

Raleigh,  322 

Recife,  127 

Restaurants,  20 

Restroppo,  196 

Reyes,  194-6 

Rice,  220 

Rimac,  257,  286 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  2,  6,  12,  14,  109, 
113,  116, 119,  129-36,  148 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  140-1 

Riobamba,  219 

Rivera,  285 

Roca,  47 

Rodo,  307 

Roosevelt,  224 

Rosas,  47 

Ross,  225 

Royal  Holland  Line,  12 

Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Com- 
pany, 6,  7,  n,  12,  23,  50, 
126,  167,  196,  235 

Rubber,  82,  84,  85,  106-7,  191, 
207,  264-7,  317 

Russell,  C.,  254 

Russell,  W.  H.,  182 

St.  Hilaire,  148 
St.  Vincent,  12 


Salaverry,  285,  288 
Salles,  123 
Salta,  29,  70 
Salto,  296-7,  308-9 
San  Antonio,  127 
San  Bernardino,  252-3 
San  Juan,  27 
San  Martin,  274,  280 
Santa  Catharina,  147 
Santa  Cruz  (River),  30 

(Territory),  32 
Santa  Fe,  67 

Santa  Marta,  12,  192,  194,  198 
Santiago,  4,  14,  15,  76,  154,  163, 

173-6 

Santos,  i,  2,  12,  14,  139-40 
Sao  Paulo,  i,  7,  101,  103-6,  109, 

114-15,  137-9,247-8 
Sa  vanilla,  196 
Schaerer,  251 
Scruggs,  331 
Segura,  280,  285 
Shops,  21 
Silver,  83,  263-4 
Simson,  205,  220 
Smith,  182 
Soldan,  285 
Sonson,  189 
South     American      Missionary 

Society,  251 

Southampton,  i,  5,  6,  n 
Southey,  25,  150 
Souza,  116 

Sucre  (General),  87,  93 
(Town),  80,  90,  91-4 
Sugar,  38,  69,  70,  108,  261-2 

Tacna,  182 
Tacora,  157 
Talca,  154 
Talcahuano,  169 
Taltal,  177 
Tarapaca,  179 


340        A   GUIDE   TO   SOUTH   AMERICA 


Times,  25 

Tin,  83,  159 

Tips,  8 

Tiradentes,  120,  149-50 

Titicaca,  80,  89,  260,  278 

Tobacco,  20,  103,  108,  242-3 

Tolima,  186 

Truth,  107,  265 

Truxillo,  288 

Tucuman,  29,  42,  47,  69,  70 

Tupac  Amaru,  273 

Unanue,  285 

United   States,    189,    207,    262, 

295,  317 
Uruguay  Republic — 

Constitution,  299 

Fauna,  294-5 

Finance,  299 

Flora,  294 

Geology,  294 

History,  300-3 

Money,  299 

Montevideo,  304-7 

Physical  Features,  293-4 

Produce  and  Industries,295~7 

Railways,  297-8 
Uruguay  River,  30,  293-4 
Uyuni,  88 

Valdivia,  154,  168-9 
Valencia,  320,  330-1 
Valparaiso,  2-4,  6,  9,  14,  1.5,  42, 

72-6,  154 
Van  Brabant,  96 
Van  Bruyssel,  254 
Varnhagen,  136 


Venezuela — 

Caracas,  326-30 

Commerce,    Products      and 
Industries,  316-21 

Constitution,  321 

Currency,  321 

Fauna,  315-16 

Finance,  321-2 

Flora,  315 

Geology,  314 

History,  322-5 

La  Guiara,  325-6 

Literature,  328-30 

Railways,  316 
Vigo,  n,  12,  14 
Villa  Concepcion,  253 
Villa  Rica,  253 
Villazon,  88 
Vina  del  Mar,  173 

Walle,  52,  97,  144,  150-1,  290 
Weddell,  96 
West  Indies,  6,  n,  12 
Wheat,  37-8,  159 
I  White,  201 
Whitelocke,  47 
Whymper,  203-4,  2°6>  217,  219- 

20 

Williman,  303 
Wilson,  231 
Wine,  20,  38-9,  74,  160,  268 

Yaghans,  155 
Yapura,  187,  212 

Zaldumbide,  218 
Zipaquira,  200 


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